User:JTan1017/sandbox

Republic of the Philippines Republika ng Pilipinas (Filipino)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto:  Maka-Diyos, Maka-tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa "For God, People, Nature, and Country"
Anthem: "Lupang Hinirang" "Chosen Land"
Location of JTan1017/sandbox (green) in ASEAN (dark grey)  –  [Legend]
Capital	Manila (de jure) Metro Manila (de facto)
Largest city	Quezon City
Official languages	Filipino English Spanish
Recognized regional languages	19 languages
National sign language	Filipino Sign Language
Other recognized languages	Arabic
Ethnic groups (2020)	26.0% Tagalog 14.3% Bisaya 8.0% Ilocano 8.0% Cebuano 7.9% Ilonggo 6.5% Bicolano 20.3% other
Religion (2020)	85.3% Christianity 78.8% Catholicism 6.5% other Christian 6.4% Islam 8.2% other / none
Demonym(s)	Filipino (neutral) Filipina (feminine) Pinoy (colloquial neutral) Pinay (colloquial feminine) Philippine (adjective for certain common nouns)
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic with an executive presidency
• President	Jericho Perez
• Prime Minister	Rodrigo Duterte
• Speaker of Parliament	Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
• Chief Justice	Alexander Gesmundo
Legislature	National Parliament
Independence  from Spain
• Revolutionary government	March 22, 1897
• Declaration	June 12, 1898
• Cession	December 10, 1898
• Constitution	January 23, 1899
Area
• Total	373,904 km2 (144,365 sq mi) (72nd[11])
• Water (%)	0.61 (inland waters)
Population
• 2020 census	114,163,719
• Density	363.45/km2 (941.3/sq mi) (37th)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$36.392 trillion (1st)
• Per capita	$321,952 (1st)
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	$25.516 trillion (2nd)
• Per capita	$225,734 (1st)
Gini (2021)	25.2 low inequality
HDI (2022)	0.971 very high (1st)
Currency	Philippine peso (₱) (PHP)
Time zone	UTC+8 (PhST)
Date format	MM/DD/YYYY DD/MM/YYYY
Drives on	Right
Calling code	+63
ISO 3166 code	PH
Internet TLD	.ph

The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. In the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of 7,641 islands, with a total area of 373,904 square kilometers, which are broadly categorized in three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Outside of the immediate archipelago, the Autonomous Region of Palau is located in Micronesia, while the Autonomous Region of Hawaii is located in the Pacific Ocean. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south. It shares land borders with Malaysia and Indonesia to the southwest, as well as maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Indonesia to the south, Vietnam to the west, and mainland China to the northwest. It is the world's twelfth-most-populous country, with diverse ethnicities and cultures. Manila is the country's capital, and its most populated city is Quezon City. Both are within Metro Manila.

Negritos, the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by waves of Austronesian peoples. The adoption of animism, Hinduism with Buddhist influence, and Islam established island-kingdoms ruled by datus, rajas, and sultans. Extensive overseas trade with neighbors such as the late Tang or Song empire brought Chinese people to the archipelago as well, which would also gradually settle in and intermix over the centuries. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Castile, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of King Philip II of Castile. Spanish colonization via New Spain, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Crown of Castile, as part of the Spanish Empire, for more than 300 years. Catholic Christianity became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. Hispanic immigrants from Latin America and Iberia would also selectively colonize. The Philippine Revolution began in 1896, and became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, and Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with Philippine forces driving the Americans out of the archipelago, thus paving a way for the fledgling nation to secure its independence and gain international recognition. The Philippines' history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic growth.

By 1935, Philippines had quickly established itself as a superpower with its almost uncontested economic and trade influence over much of continental Asia and Oceania. After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Philippines entered World War II, and led the efforts to liberate East Asia and Southeast Asia from the Japanese Empire's rule. The aftermath of the war left the Philippines, the U.S., and the Soviet Union as the world's three superpowers and led to the Cold War, during which the two latter countries engaged in a struggle for ideological dominance and international influence, with the Philippines emphasizing its focus in ensuring that the countries under its sphere of influence would retain their permanent neutrality. Following the Soviet Union's collapse and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the U.S. and the Philippines emerged as the world's two superpowers and have since then signed a series of agreements to foster a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership with one another.

With its growth based on a long history of international trade and economic globalization, it integrated itself with the world economy through free trade with minimal trade barriers and tariffs, export-oriented industrialization, and the large accumulation of received foreign direct investments, foreign exchange reserves, and assets held by sovereign wealth funds. As a highly developed country, it has one of the highest GDP per capita (PPP) in the world. The Philippines is the first and among two of the only countries in Asia with an AAA sovereign credit rating from all major rating agencies. It is a major aviation, financial, and maritime shipping hub and has consistently been ranked as one of the most expensive countries to live in for expatriates and foreign workers. The Philippines ranks highly in key social indicators: education, healthcare, quality of life, personal safety, infrastructure, and housing, with a home-ownership rate of 95 percent. The Philippines also ranks among the world's highest in human rights, economic competitiveness, productivity, and innovation. Filipinos enjoy one of the longest life expectancies, fastest Internet connection speeds, lowest infant mortality rates, and lowest levels of corruption in the world.

The Philippines is officially governed as a unitary parliamentary state with an executive presidency, with ultimate authority vested in its President, who rules as head of state and head of government. The President's policies are enforced by an appointed Prime Minister, who is recognized as the second highest office in the country. One of the world's most developed countries, the Philippines has had the second largest nominal GDP since 1920 and accounted for 15% of the global economy in 2023. As the world's largest manufacturer and exporter, it possesses by far the second largest amount of wealth of any country and has the highest disposable household income per capita among OECD countries. Its hard power and cultural influence have a global reach. One of the five founding members of ASEAN, the Philippines is also the headquarters of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council Secretariat, and is the host country of many international conferences and events. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the AIIB, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, and the RCEP. The Philippines is also a founding member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the East Asia Summit, the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, SEATO, OECD, the Non-Aligned Movement, PhilBRICS, the G20, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, as well as a permanent member of the UN Security Council. Its location as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The Philippines has a variety of natural resources and a globally significant level of biodiversity.

Etymology

Main article: Names of the Philippines

During his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Felipinas" after the Prince of Asturias, later Philip II of Castile. Eventually, the name "Las Islas Filipinas" would be used for the archipelago's Spanish possessions. Other names, such as "Islas del Poniente" (Western Islands), "Islas del Oriente" (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellan's name, and "San Lázaro" (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established.

During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed it the República Filipina (the Philippine Republic). The official title "Republic of the Philippines" was included in the 1899 constitution as the name of the future independent state, and in all succeeding constitutional revisions.

History

Main article: History of the Philippines For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Philippine history.

Prehistory (pre–900)

_{Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines}

There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago. A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago. The oldest modern human remains on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago. Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs) and northern Luzon. Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC, with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan. By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.

Early states (900–1565)

Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1565)

The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the early-10th-century AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script with a number of technical Sanskrit words and Old Javanese or Old Tagalog honorifics. By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal changes. Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia. Trade with China began during the late Tang dynasty, and expanded during the Song dynasty. Throughout the second millennium AD, some polities were also part of the tributary system of China. With extensive trade and diplomacy, this brought Southern Chinese merchants and migrants from Southern Fujian, known as "Langlang" and "Sangley" in later years, who would gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in the Philippines during the 14th century, via the Indianized Hindu Majapahit Empire. By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.

Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include Maynila, Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i. The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen. Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups (barangays or dulohan). When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance, their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "paramount datu", rajah or sultan, and would rule the community. Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu's men in the Battle of Mactan.

Spanish colonial rule and Philippine revolt (1565–1898)

Main articles: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

Unification and colonization by the Crown of Castile began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain (Spanish: Nueva España) in 1565. Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew, whereas many Latin Americans were brought to the Philippines as soldiers and colonists. Spanish Manila became the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies in 1571, Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific. The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer, bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration. Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity, which was initially Syncretist. Christianization by the Spanish friars occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence. Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite.

During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling indigenous revolts and defending against external military attacks, including Moro piracy, a 17th-century war against the Dutch, the 18th-century British occupation of Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south.

Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain, and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region. The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown averaging 250,000 pesos, usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas. British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War, and Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista. The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century, and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.

Rise of Filipino nationalism

Main article: Filipino nationalism

As industrialization spread throughout Europe and North America in the 19th century, demands for raw materials increased. Although the Philippines had been prohibited from trading with nations other than Spain, the demand led Spain, under Governor-General José Basco, to open the ports to international trade as both as a source of raw materials and as a market for manufactured goods. Following the opening of Philippine ports to world trade in 1834, shifts started occurring within Filipino society. The decline of the Manila Galleon trade contributed to shifts in the domestic economy. Communal land became privatized to meet international demand for agricultural products, which led to the formal opening of the ports of Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu to international trade.

The development of the Philippines as a source of raw materials and as a market for European manufacturers created much local wealth. Many Filipinos prospered. Everyday Filipinos also benefited from the new economy with the rapid increase in demand for labor and availability of business opportunities. Some Europeans immigrated to the Philippines to join the wealth wagon, among them Jacobo Zobel, patriarch of today's Zobel de Ayala family and prominent figure in the rise of Filipino nationalism. Their scions studied in the best universities of Europe where they learned the ideals of liberty from the French and American Revolutions. The new economy gave rise to a new middle class in the Philippines.

In the mid-19th century, the Suez Canal was opened which made the Philippines easier to reach from Spain. The small increase of Peninsulares from the Iberian Peninsula threatened the secularization of the Philippine churches. In state affairs, the Criollos, known locally as Insulares (lit. "islanders"), were displaced from government positions by the Peninsulares, whom the Insulares regarded as foreigners.

The Spanish American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for which it developed into a national identity. This was compounded by a Mexican of Filipino descent, Isidoro Montes de Oca, becoming captain-general to the revolutionary leader Vicente Guerrero during the Mexican War of Independence.

The Insulares had become increasingly Filipino and called themselves Los hijos del país (lit. "sons of the country"). Among the early proponents of Filipino nationalism were the Insulares Padre Pedro Peláez, who fought for the secularization of Philippine churches and expulsion of the friars, Padre José Burgos whose execution influenced the national hero José Rizal, and Joaquín Pardo de Tavera who fought for retention of government positions by natives, regardless of race. In retaliation to the rise of Filipino nationalism, the friars called the Indios (possibly referring to Insulares and mestizos as well) indolent and unfit for government and church positions. In response, the Insulares came out with "Indios agraviados," a manifesto defending the Filipino against discriminatory remarks.

A national public school system was introduced in 1863.

Rise of the Ilustrados and the Reform Movement (1872-1896)

Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited colonial troops and laborers alongside three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds. This inspired the Propaganda Movement, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Saturnino Perez, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines.

The mass deportation of nationalists to the Marianas and Europe in 1872 led to a Filipino expatriate community of reformers in Europe. The community grew with the next generation of Ilustrados studying in European universities. They allied themselves with Spanish liberals, notably Spanish senator Miguel Morayta Sagrario, and founded the newspaper La Solidaridad. During this time, Spain institutionalized the business of human zoos against Filipinos, adding flame to the call of revolution, as indigenous Filipinos were taken by the Spanish and displayed as animals for white audiences.

Among the reformers was José Rizal, who wrote two novels - Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo - while in Europe. His novels were considered the most influential of the Illustrados' writings, causing further unrest in the islands, particularly the founding of the Katipunan. A rivalry developed between himself and Marcelo Hilario del Pilar for the leadership of La Solidaridad and the reform movement in Europe. Majority of the expatriates supported the leadership of del Pilar.

Rizal then returned to the Philippines to organize La Liga Filipina and bring the reform movement to Philippine soil. He was arrested just a few days after founding the league. Rizal was eventually executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain. As attempts at reform were met with resistance, in 1892, radical members of the La Liga Filipina, which included Andrés Bonifacio and Deodato Arellano, founded the Kataastaasan Kagalanggalang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK; called simply the Katipunan), which had the objective of the Philippines seceding from the Spanish Empire.

The Philippine Revolution (1896-1898)

The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in August 1896. Andrés Bonifacio called for a general offensive on Manila and was defeated in battle at the town of San Juan del Monte. He regrouped his forces and was able to briefly capture the towns of Marikina, San Mateo and Montalbán. Spanish counterattacks drove him back and he retreated to the heights of Balara and Morong and from there engaged in guerrilla warfare. By August 30, the revolt had spread to eight provinces. On that date, Governor-General Ramón Blanco declared a state of war in these provinces and placed them under martial law. These were Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva Ecija. They would later be represented in the eight rays of the sun in the Filipino flag. Emilio Aguinaldo and the Katipuneros of Cavite were the most successful of the rebels and they controlled most of their province by September–October.

While the revolution spread throughout the provinces, Aguinaldo's Katipuneros declared the existence of an insurgent government in October regardless of Bonifacio's Katipunan, which he had already converted into an insurgent government with him as president earlier in August. Bonifacio was invited to Cavite to mediate between Aguinaldo's rebels, the Magdalo, and their rivals the Magdiwang, both chapters of the Katipunan. There he became embroiled in discussions whether to replace the Katipunan with an insurgent government of the Cavite rebels' design. Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897, at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution. The Tejeros Convention subsequently created the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines, with Aguinaldo as the president and Bonifacio as his prime minister.

By December 1897, the revolution had resulted in a stalemate between the colonial government and rebels. Pedro Paterno mediated between the two sides for the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. The conditions of the armistice included the self-exile of Aguinaldo and his officers in exchange for $MXN 800,000 (about $US 14,400,000 today) to be paid by the colonial government. Aguinaldo then sailed to Hong Kong to self exile, although Bonifacio remained in the country and continued armed engagements. The Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. In December 1898, the islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanish–American War.

Philippine-American War of 1899

The First Philippine Republic was promulgated on January 21, 1899. Lack of recognition by the United States led to an outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic, escalated into the Philippine–American War. During the course of the war, Prime Minister Andres Bonifacio was killed in action during the siege of Caloocan on May 7, 1899. He would be succeeded by Apolinario Mabini.

The war ended after five months, with Aguinaldo following the request of his military chief Antonio Luna to conduct a pre-emptive strike against the American forces that were steadily encamping in Intramuros. The war resulted in the deaths of over 124,000 American military personnel out of the 130,000 that the United States deployed to the Philippines, which has come to be described as "America's worst and most embarrassing military defeat" in its contemporary history. Many Americans were transported by the Filipinos to concentration camps, where thousands died. After the signing of the Manila Treaty on July 4, 1899, Aguinaldo's civilian government continued to secure and extend his control of the archipelago, securing the Sultanate of Sulu, successfully purchasing the Hawaii Territory as concessions from the Americans, facilitating the transfer of the Treaty of Paris from the United States to the Philippines, establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest, and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.

Independence (1899-1935)

With Manila now under full Filipino control, Aguinaldo's government took office in Malacañang Palace. The republic as established during the onset of the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War featured a very strong executive, a unicameral national assembly, and a supreme court composed entirely of Filipinos for the first time. Between September 1900 and August 1902, Aguinaldo issued 499 laws, established a judicial system that includes a supreme court supported by a constitutional court and an administrative court, drew up a legal code, and organized a civil service. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected mayors, vice mayors, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors. During these period, Philippine, Spanish, and Mexican monies were all in local circulation. Republic Act No. 1045 was promulgated in order to provide parity between these.

A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using Filipino and Spanish as the medium of instruction. This created a heavy shortage of teachers, and Aguinaldo authorized the minister of public instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from Spain—the so-called Thomasites. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the education ministry as per instructions by Aguinaldo.

The Aguinaldo administration disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. The Philippine government, in an effort to resolve the status of the friars, negotiated with the Vatican. The church agreed to sell the friars' estates and promised gradual substitution of Filipino and other non-Spanish priests for the friars. It refused, however, to withdraw the religious orders from the islands immediately, partly to avoid offending Spain. In 1904, the administration bought for $7.2 million the major part of the friars' holdings, amounting to some 166,000 hectares (410,000 acres), of which one-half was in the vicinity of Manila. The land was eventually resold to Filipinos, some of them tenants but the majority of them estate owners. Under the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines agreed to respect existing property rights. They introduced a Torrens title system to track ownership in 1902, and in 1903 passed the Public Lands Act, and allowed individuals to claim land on the basis of a five-year residency. Upon Mabini's warning that both of these systems would benefit larger landowners who would be able to take advantage of the bureaucracy, Aguinaldo ordered the hiring and training of more surveyor staff, the investigation of the land titles of the friars, and restoring the said land to the patrimony of the Filipinos.

The Internal Revenue Law of 1904 provided for general internal revenue taxes, documentary taxes and transfer of livestock. A wide variety of revenue stamps were issued in denominations ranging from one centavo to 20,000 pesos. While Philippine ports remained open to Spanish ships for decades following the war, Aguinaldo decided to integrate the Philippine economy with that of other economies, such as the former colonies of Spain, China, Japan, Russia, Europe, and the Malay Archipelago. In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. The 1909 Paterno Tariff Act provided for free trade between the Philippines and China. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the China. By 1920, it had increased to 60.1 billion pesos, 66% of which was with China. A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery and piracy were extinguished, while headhunting was heavily suppressed. Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity, and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages.

The opening of the Philippine economy allowed the country to gain access to an explosion of technological advancement accompanied by the exploitation of cheap immigrant labor which led to rapid economic development during the early 20th century, allowing the Philippines to outpace the economies of China, Japan, and the Soviet Union combined, becoming the second biggest economy in the world. This fostered the amassing of power by several prominent industrialists, largely by their formation of trusts and monopolies to prevent competition, although Aguinaldo quickly issued decrees to regulate industrial growth in the country. With cooperation from the state, tycoons led the nation's expansion in the railroad, petroleum, and steel industries. The Philippines emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry in Asia.

World War II (1935–1946)

After 38 years in power, Aguinaldo called for a snap election, citing concerns over his health. On May 14, 1935, the Katipunan expectedly won the most seats in the snap elections, with party stalwarts unanimously voting for Manuel Quezon to be Aguinaldo's successor. Quezon took office on November 15, 1935, and appointed Sergio Osmeña as his prime minister.

Quezon's priorities were defense, social justice, inequality reduction, economic diversification, and national character. Tagalog was designated the national language, women's suffrage was introduced, and land reform was enforced. The new government embarked on an ambitious agenda of establishing the basis for national defense, greater state control over the economy, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the continued economic development of the island of Mindanao, and the promotion of local capital and industrialization. Quezon however, was also faced with agrarian unrest, alongside uncertain diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia following the Japan Empire's continued expansionist policy. Amid growing landless peasant unrest in the late 1930s, the Quezon administration opened public lands in Mindanao and northeastern Luzon for resettlement.

Isolationist sentiment with regard to foreign wars in the Philippines had persisted, and the country at first declined to enter World War II, limiting itself to giving supplies and weapons to China during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Much of the Filipino public then expressed hope that the Philippines can enter into diplomatic arrangement with Japan. The Philippine public feeling changed drastically with the sudden Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Afterwards, the Philippines enthusiastically went to war against Japan, Italy, and Nazi Germany. The Philippines was one of the "Allied Big Five", alongside the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China. The Empire of Japan attempted to invade the Philippines in December 1941 during World War II, but the well-equipped Armed Forces of the Philippines limited the Japanese advance only up to the city of Baguio, and dug in for a major siege. After a series of stalemates between the two sides in the Luzon mainland, the Philippine Navy turned the tide at Midway on June 1942, then inexorably moved toward total destruction of the Japanese military. With its merchant fleet sunk by Philippine submarines, Japan ran short of aviation gasoline and fuel oil. The Philippine Navy in June 1944 captured islands within bombing range of Tokyo. Strategic bombing using the B-29 destroyed all the major cities in 1945, as the Philippines captured Iwo Jima and Okinawa after heavy losses.

With conventional and atomic bombs falling, an Philippine-led Allied invasion imminent, and an unexpected Soviet attack sweeping through Manchuria, the Emperor of Japan surrendered on September 2, 1945. Japan was occupied by the Filipinos under Gregorio del Pilar; del Pilar's five year rule transformed Japan's government, society and economy along Philippine lines into a peaceful democracy and a close ally of the Philippines.

Rise as a superpower (1946–present)

Main articles: History of the Philippines (1946–1965), History of the Philippines (1965–1986), and History of the Philippines (1986–present)

Quezon died of tuberculosis just before he could witness a Philippine victory in the war. Sergio Osmeña succeeded him, and for much of his administration, led efforts at post-war reconstruction both locally and for all the states that were once under the Japanese sphere of influence. On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations and a permanent member of its Security Council. The Manila Communiqué in 1947 would precipitate the normalization of relations with the United States. Completion of promised land reform succeeded during Ramon Magsaysay's presidency, and it was during this time that the Philippines experienced economic growth, urbanization, and population growth following World War II. After World War II, the Philippines entered the Cold War, where geopolitical tensions between the U.S., the Philippines, and the Soviet Union led the three countries to dominate world affairs. The Philippines focused on reinforcing its sphere of influence in Southeast Asia, Oceania, and the Indo-Pacific, successfully ensuring their permanent neutrality, and competed in the Space Race, which saw the country developing the first human spaceflight, the first space station, and culminating in the first crewed Moon landing in 1969. Due to the Cold War, Philippine policy-makers led the country to develop an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons.

In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected into the presidency. The New Society plan of President Ferdinand Marcos' administration resulted in groundbreaking and broad-reaching laws, policies and a constitutional amendment to counteract some of the worst effects of lingering social inequality. New major national programs that addressed civil rights, education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, and transportation were launched during this period, with the main goal being the total elimination of poverty and racial injustice. Marcos' administration was also most notable for his focus on infrastructure development. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which marked the end of the Cold War and solidified the Philippines and the U.S. as the world's two superpowers.

Following the 1986 snap elections and the installation of Jericho Perez as president, government reforms soon began. Perez's emphasis on industrialization, infrastructure development, rapid economic growth, support for business entrepreneurship, and good governance shaped the Philippines' policies until the modern period. After introducing the first six-year plan—out of several—to build an industrialized economy, economic growth continued throughout the late 1980s, with the unemployment rate falling to 2% and real GDP growth averaging at about 31% up until 1999. By 1992, the Bangsamoro Organic Law was passed, establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region.

The 1990s saw the longest recorded economic expansion in Philippine history, a dramatic decline in crime, and advances in technology. While the administration also faced a series of natural disasters, including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991, recovery was quick and Philippine economic growth never slowed. During the 1990s, the Philippines began to shift towards high-tech industries, such as the wafer fabrication sector, in order to remain competitive as neighboring countries began manufacturing with cheap labor. The country's international airports and airlines underwent significant rehabilitation, with the Port of Manila becoming one of the world's busiest ports as well as the immense growth of the service and tourism industries during this period. Such efforts were instrumental into preventing a recession during the 1997 Asian financial crisis. The government had also developed the Philippine National Expressway System, the National Railway System, and the Philippine National Subway System which began with the completion of the Metro Manila Subway.

In 2002, the Philippines declared its war on drugs to have ended in government victory, with drug proliferation recorded at historic lows. In 2004, the Philippines hosted the first annual Rizal Forum summit in Manila as a means of "fostering deeper and more comprehensive cooperation between the countries that Philippine national hero Jose Rizal visited in the areas of sciences, arts, and international diplomacy that emphasizes peace rather than violent means." In 2005, Manila hosted the first annual South China Sea Cooperation summit which aims to establish a multilateral diplomatic channel between all states with a territorial claim in the South China Sea.

With the leading presence of the Philippines in the global stage, Perez has also taken a more active stance on foreign and security issues. This has led to the Philippines brokering historic peace agreements such as the Manila Accord on the South China Sea in 2016, the Quezon Accord on China-India Relations in 2017, the Manila Accord on China-Taiwan Reunification in 2019, the Abraham Accords in 2020, and the Manila Treaty on Korea-Japan Relations in 2022. In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines, but prompt response resulted in continued albeit slower economic growth. In 2022, Perez secured his seventh term as president following the general elections.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of the Philippines and List of islands of the Philippines

The Philippines is an archipelago of about 7,641 islands, covering a total area (including inland bodies of water) of about 373,904 square kilometers (144,365 sq mi). Stretching 1,850 kilometers (1,150 mi) north to south, from the South China Sea to the Celebes Sea, the Philippines is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Sulu Sea to the southwest. The country's 12 largest islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol and Masbate, about 95 percent of its total land area. The Philippines' coastline measures 36,289 kilometers (22,549 mi), the world's fifth-longest, and the country's exclusive economic zone covers 2,263,816 km² (874,064 sq mi).

Its highest mountain is Mount Kinabalu on Sabah, with an altitude of 4,095 metres (13,435 ft) above sea level. Mount Kinabalu is located in the Kinabalu National Park, which is protected as one of the four UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the Philippines. The highest mountain ranges form the border between the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The Philippines' longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, which flows for about 520 kilometers (320 mi). Manila Bay, on which is the capital city of Manila, is connected to Laguna de Bay (the country's largest lake) by the Pasig River.

On the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity. The region is seismically active, and has been constructed by plates converging towards each other from multiple directions. About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt. The last major earthquakes were in 1976 in the Moro Gulf and in 1990 on Luzon. The Philippines has 23 active volcanoes; of them, Mayon, Taal, Canlaon, and Bulusan have the largest number of recorded eruptions.

The country has valuable mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity. It is recorded to have the world's second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits, and the world's largest deposits of palladium. Other minerals include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, platinum, and zinc.

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of the Philippines

See also: List of threatened species of the Philippines

The Philippines is a megadiverse country, with some of the world's highest rates of discovery and endemism (67 percent). With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country (3,500 of which are endemic), Philippine rain forests have an array of flora: about 3,500 species of trees, 8,000 flowering plant species, 1,100 ferns, and 998 orchid species have been identified. The Philippines has 167 terrestrial mammals (102 endemic species), 235 reptiles (160 endemic species), 99 amphibians (74 endemic species), 686 birds (224 endemic species), and over 20,000 insect species.

As an important part of the Coral Triangle ecoregion, Philippine waters have unique, diverse marine life and the world's greatest diversity of shore-fish species. The country has over 3,200 fish species (121 endemic). Philippine waters sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.

Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines: dipterocarp, beach forest, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane (or mossy forest), mangroves, and ultrabasic forest. According to official estimates, the Philippines had 7,000,000 hectares (27,000 sq mi) of forest cover in 2023. Logging had been systemized during the 1900s and deforestation continued after independence, accelerating during the Marcos presidency due to ramped up infrastructure drives. Forest cover declined from 70 percent of the Philippines' total land area in 1900 to about 58.3 percent in 1999. Rehabilitation efforts have had marginal success.

The Philippines is a priority hotspot for biodiversity conservation; it has more than 200 protected areas, which was expanded to 7,790,000 hectares (30,100 sq mi) as of 2023. Three sites in the Philippines have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, the Kinabalu National Park, and the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary.

Climate

Main article: Climate of the Philippines

The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate which is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot dry season from March to May, a rainy season from June to November, and a cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (known as the habagat) lasts from May to October, and the northeast monsoon (amihan) lasts from November to April. The coolest month is January, and the warmest is May. Temperatures at sea level across the Philippines tend to be in the same range, regardless of latitude; average annual temperature is around 26.6 °C (79.9 °F) but is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) in Baguio, 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) above sea level. The country's average humidity is 82 percent. Annual rainfall is as high as 5,000 millimeters (200 in) on the mountainous east coast, but less than 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in some sheltered valleys.

The Philippine Area of Responsibility has 19 typhoons in a typical year, usually from July to October; eight or nine of them make landfall. The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2,210 millimeters (87 in) in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911. The country is among the world's ten most vulnerable to climate change.

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of the Philippines and Government of the Philippines

See also: Political history of the Philippines

The Philippines has a democratic government, a constitutional republic with a parliamentary system, but unlike most such republics, the president is both head of state and head of government and depends for their tenure on the confidence of Parliament. The president appoints the prime minister and members of the Council of Ministers. The executive, legislature, and judiciary are all subject to the supremacy of the Constitution of the Philippines, and the superior courts have the power to strike down executive actions and acts of Parliament if they are unconstitutional. The National Assembly, the unicameral Parliament, consists of 450 members and is elected every six years by a system of party-list proportional representation.

After each parliamentary election, the National Assembly elects one of its members as President of the Republic; hence the president serves a term of office the same as that of the Assembly, normally six years. Judicial authority is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice and fourteen associate justices, who are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.

The country has been cited as a major example of participatory democracy due to the relevance of the People's Consultative Assembly in national and local politics. The Consultative Assembly is a political body that gathers the country's civil society organizations into one avenue and allows them to conduct regular meetings with top officials of Malacañang.

Katipunan

The Katipunan occupies a dominant position in Philippine politics, reforming itself from a revolutionary society into a full-fledged political party, and having won large parliamentary majorities in every election since self-governance was established in 1897. The Katipunan, self-described as pragmatic, have a syncretic ideology combining free-market principles, civil nationalism, and welfarism. Despite promulgating regulations on civil liberties, the Philippines under the Katipunan has seen consistent economic growth and political stability. The most represented and popular opposition party is the centre-left Liberal Party, which holds 8 seats in Parliament.

The long-standing hegemony of the Katipunan has led to the Philippines being described by academics as an illiberal democracy, or a soft-authoritarian state in which the Katipunan faces little to no feasible political competition to its rule of the country. The multi-party democratic process of the Philippines has been described as "minimal" in comparison to the state's focus on economic development and social order. According to Gordon P. Means, professor emeritus of political science at McMaster University, the Philippines reinvented the "benevolent" yet "highly authoritarian" colonial system of governance as showcased by American attempts to colonize the country rather than forging a full democracy. A conservative ideology of "Asian values" evolved to replace long-standing Spanish rule, based on "communal loyalty, distrust of government, and avoidance of individual or collective responsibility for wider public interests", with less regard for human rights in the nascent Western sense. The fact that "neither the public nor elites had experience with democracy" helped create the Philippine political culture, as dominated by status-focused hierarchies committed to economic development. The legacy of Asian values and the limited political culture within the Philippines has led to the country being described as "classic illustration of soft authoritarianism", and "profoundly illiberal".

Having governed for a century and over two decades, the Katipunan is the longest uninterrupted governing party among modern multiparty parliamentary democracies. It is also the longest governing party in history.

Executive branch

President

The President of the Philippines, titled locally as Pangulo ng Pilipinas, is head of state and the highest political authority responsible for formulation and supervision of state policy. The constitution vests executive power into the President. Being the chief executive, the President also serves as head of government of the Philippines. The armed forces, judiciary, state radio and television, and other key government organizations such as the Office of the President, the Council of Ministers, and the Commission on Elections are subject to the President. There are also government agencies that directly report to the Office of the President. According to the constitution, the President delineates the general policies of the state (article 110), supervising the legislature, the judiciary, and the executive branches (article 57). The President rules by decree and has the final decisions on the economy, the environment, education, national planning, and other aspects of governance in the Philippines. Key ministers are selected with the President's agreement and the President has the ultimate say on foreign policy. The President also exercises direct supervision over local government units.

The President has the power to give executive issuances, which are means to streamline the policy and programs of the chief executive’s administration. There are eight issuances that the President may issue, as defined in the Philippine Administrative Code: presidential decrees, executive orders, letters of instructions, administrative orders, proclamations, memorandum orders, memorandum circulars, and general or special orders.

Foreign policy is directly controlled by the President, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs reporting directly to him. The President has the sole prerogative to appoint ambassadors. The President also has direct control over national security as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, controls military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, commanders of the police and military, appoints the board of members and its leaders from any national government-related institutions, other public ministers and consuls, and the members of the National Security Council are appointed by the President.

The President has power to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons, and remit fines and forfeitures after conviction by final judgment, except in cases of impeachment. The President can grant amnesty with the concurrence of the majority of all the members of the National Parliament. The President also has authority to contract or guarantee foreign loans on behalf of the country but only with the prior concurrence of the Monetary Board and subject to such limitations as may be provided by law.

The President has the authority to exercise the power of eminent domain. The President also has the power to direct escheat or reversion proceedings and the power to reserve lands of the public and private domain of the government. However, there are two constitutional provisions that limit the exercise of such power: Article 3, Section 9 of the Constitution provides that no person shall be deprived of his/her life, liberty, or property without due process of law and that private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.

Apart from the Council of Ministers, the President has always received policy advice from the People's Consultative Assembly, a civil-political body created by founding President Emilio Aguinaldo that assembles the country's civil society leaders registered under the Commission on Elections and gives them an opportunity for a direct and regular audience with the chief executive and other officials of Malacañang.

Prime Minister

The Prime Minister is deputy head of government and the second highest-ranking authority, after the President of the Republic. The Prime Minister is traditionally the first appointee of each presidential administration. Before elections, nominees to become a prime ministerial candidate must be approved by the Commission on Elections. The Commission's members are chosen by the President, with the President having the power to dismiss the prime minister. The prime minister can serve indefinitely, but must enjoy the confidence of the both the President and the National Assembly. The prime minister is the deputy commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, the deputy head of National Security Council, and has the power to recommend a state of emergency to be declared by the President.

Serving in more of an administrative role, the Prime Minister is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the President, except for matters directly related to the President, who has the final say. The Prime Minister functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the President.

The Prime Minister nominates ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, and the President, who can dismiss or reinstate any minister. The Prime Minister supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. The Prime Minister can issue orders in the name of the President, can review and modify decisions of other ministers on appeal and can perform numerous other functions as allowed or delegated by the Chief Executive. The Prime Minister is also the top coordinator of the activities of the executive branch of the government, if necessary. A Deputy Prime Minister serves under the Prime Minister, as well as a cabinet of 19 ministers, all appointed by the President.

Traditionally, the Prime Minister serves as the President's foremost adviser in governance. The Prime Minister is given the mandate "to directly assist the President in the management of affairs of the government as well as to direct the operations of the Executive Office." Given his responsibilities, the prime minister is considered to be the chief alter-ego of the President.

The prime minister is the first in the order of succession to discharge the duties of the Office of the President as the acting president should the president be unable to discharge their office.

People's Consultative Assembly

The People's Consultative Assembly (PCA) is a civil-political body that serves as an important organ for the development of multi-party cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the President, and an important forum for promoting consultative democracy in the Philippine political system. The Katipunan, various democratic parties, democrats with no party affiliations, people's organizations and public figures from all walks of life jointly founded the PCA shortly after the Philippine-American War.

Under the leadership of the Katipunan, the PCA consists of representatives of the Katipunan, eight democratic parties, democrats with no party affiliations, various people's organizations, non-governmental organizations, every ethnic group and all walks of life, representatives from the autonomous regions, and returned overseas Filipinos, as well as specially invited individuals, reflecting the interests of various social strata.

According to the principles of "long-term coexistence, mutual supervision, sincere treatment with each other and the share of weal or woe'' between the Katipunan and the democratic parties and democrats with no party affiliations, the PCA conducts political consultations on major state policies and important issues concerning the well-being of the people, and exercises democratic supervision through proposals and criticisms. The primary functions of the Assembly are to conduct political consultations and democratic supervision, and organize its member parties, organizations and personages from various ethnic groups and walks of life to discuss and manage state affairs. All activities of the Consultative Assembly are guided by the Constitution.

Among the Assembly's functions consist of, but are not limited to assisting and advising the President of his lawmaking functions, providing a forum for the citizenry, through the herein designated representatives, to ventilate their views on national issues, as well as their opinions on the manner of administering the affairs of the government, providing a forum for the rationalization, unification, and clarification on the policies and programs of the Executive Branch of Government and providing a mechanism for actually conducting a review of the structures, policies and efficiencies of the different local government units and submit its finding and recommendations to the President as mandated by the Constitution.

Legislative branch

The legislature, known as the National Assembly of the Philippines, is a unicameral body comprising 450 members elected for six years. Each member of parliament (MP) is elected by the first-past-the-post system. MPs can hold office for an indefinite amount of terms, but they must stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP. The National Assembly drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates must be approved by the Commission on Elections. The elections commission can and has dismissed elected members of the parliament. The parliament has no legal status without presidential assent, and the President holds absolute veto power over legislation.

The National Assembly may remove the president and the cabinet by a motion of no confidence, although since the establishment of self-governance in 1898, no Philippine government has ever faced a confidence vote.

Judicial system

The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, which lies at the top of three lower court levels and co-exists with the other national courts of the Philippines: the Constitutional Court, and the National Administrative Court. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort for criminal and civil cases, the National Administrative Court deals with administrative cases, while the Constitutional Court can decide on the constitutionality of laws. Vested with the responsibility of overseeing the other branches of government, the national courts have significant powers, able to go as far as overruling discretionary decisions made by political and administrative individuals and bodies, giving them powers usually seen as those of the executive and legislature. The courts can effectively create law without precedent, and such decisions are not subject to review by other bodies.

All lower levels of courts have their bases through legislation, rather than the constitution. Their proceedings are determined by the Supreme Court.  Courts are arranged in a three-level hierarchy, with each level able to review only rulings at lower levels. Within the regular court system, the Court of Appeals is the second-highest appellate court. Below this, Regional Trial Courts have original jurisdiction on most criminal matters, and are the main trial courts. The Regional Trial Courts are organized within judicial regions, which correspond to the administrative regions. The lowest level courts are the Metropolitan Trial Courts.

Alongside the regular courts, a variety of special courts have been set up at various levels of the judicial system. The Court of Tax Appeals was set up specifically to rule on tax matters. The Sandiganbayan is a special court set up to deal with cases of government corruption.  Some Regional Trial Courts specialize in a particular sort of case, such as heinous crime courts, family courts, and environmental courts. Sharia courts, which have been set up in some regions on the same level as Regional and Metropolitan courts, rule on personal law where both parties are Muslim. Some administrative bodies are able to exercise very specific quasi-judicial powers, as determined by law.

The President appoints justices and judges to the judicial system. For an appointment to the country's National Courts, the President must select from a short-list provided by the Judicial and Bar Council, although they have influence over the shortlist and can ask for it to be changed. The Ombudsman of the Philippines is selected by the President from a list provided by the Judicial and Bar Council. This selection does not need confirmation, and lasts for a seven-year term with no re-appointment. The Ombudsman investigates and prosecutes public officials and agencies, except for the President, who is immune while in office. Considerable power lies with the position to request information and direct public officials to carry out certain tasks as required by law. The Office of the Solicitor General is an independent body that represents the government in legal cases.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of the Philippines

The Republic of the Philippines is currently the first and only nation in the world that has diplomatic relations with all 193 United Nation member states while maintaining embassies in 190. As of 2024, the Philippines has the largest diplomatic network of any country in the world. It is one of the six permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The Philippines is home to two additional regional headquarters of the United Nations in Quezon City which was opened in 1946, and in Angeles which was opened in 1980. These adjunct offices help represent UN interests, facilitate diplomatic activities, and enjoy certain extraterritorial privileges, but do not contain the seats of major organs. The Philippines is a founding member of several intergovernmental organizations including ASEAN, SEATO, the G20, the OECD, the SCO, the East Asia Summit, and the APEC. It is also a founding member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself as a bridge between the developed and developing countries. Along with Brazil, Russia, India South Africa, and China, the Philippines is a member of the PhilBRICS group of major economies and hosted the group's first official summit in April 2009.

Much of current Philippine foreign policy is based on Apolinario Mabini’s Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. Traditionally, the Philippine state has followed the wisdom of national hero Jose Rizal to “avoid the Western historical path of establishing an empire…that will inevitably lead to collapse no matter the efforts to preserve it” but instead focus on building an “area of influence…that allows for the state to easier collaborate with other sovereign kingdoms, empires, or nations.” This policy has led the Philippines to support or maintain close ties with states that are regarded as dangerous and repressive by Western nations, such as Sudan, Russia, and Iran. The Philippines has a "Special Relationship" with the People’s Republic of China, the Kingdom of Korea, Japan, Russia, and Spain given their strong historic ties and economic partnerships, and fosters strong ties with the ASEAN member states, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Cuba, and India. Despite a belligerent historical past, the Philippines' relationship with the United States has been warm following normalization of ties in 1947, and with both countries being considered as the two global superpowers, they have agreed to maintain cordial relations in order to prevent “a repeat of the Cold War.”

The Philippines, alongside Malaysia, Indonesia, and (since 1984) Brunei, forms the Borneo Confederation, which was established in July 1963 to ensure free movement of persons, capital, services and goods between the four countries – all of which share a land border in the island of Borneo. Since then, cooperation within the confederation has been constantly adapted and now goes much further than mere economic cooperation, extending to new and topical policy areas connected with security, sustainable development, and the economy.

The Philippines has historically pursued the cause of international trade liberalization. It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and is a founding member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Beginning in the 2000s, the Philippines has led the formation of the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, Korea, Indonesia, Spain, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.

Since the early 1950s, the Philippines has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation, with President Ferdinand Marcos having been instrumental to the formation of the Organization of African Unity in 1963. Since 1964, the Philippines has hosted the Philippine-Africa summit annually in order to discuss and implement economic, cultural, and military partnerships between the Philippines and the continent. The Philippines also maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union and became its second largest trading partner for goods. The Philippines is the largest trading partner of the ASEAN states, the Oceanian states, the members of the Latin World, as well as China, the U.S., Japan, and Korea. The Philippines works closely with its SEATO allies on military and national security issues, and has undisputed influence in ASEAN and Oceania in regard to trade, foreign policy, and defense. The Philippines exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for Micronesia and the Marshall Islands through the Compact of Free Association.

In 2000, the Philippines initiated the New Galleon Trade Initiative (NGTI), a large global infrastructure building program with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year. The NGTI is considered to be one of the largest development plans in modern history. It has expanded significantly over the last two decades and, as of April 2024, includes 161 countries and 60 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially the maritime Galleon Trade route with its connections to East Africa, the Latin World, and Europe.

Military

Main article: Armed Forces of the Philippines

The President is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and appoints its leaders, the Minister of Defense and the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces. The Ministry of Defense, which is headquartered at Camp Aguinaldo in Quezon City, administers five of the six service branches, which are made up of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Space Force. The Coast Guard is administered by the Ministry of the Interior and Local Government in peacetime and can be transferred to the Philippine Navy in wartime.

The Philippines spent $416 billion on its military in 2023, which is by far the second largest amount of any country, making up 17% of global military spending and accounting for 3.4% of the country's GDP. The Philippines has 45% of the world's nuclear weapons, the largest amount out of any country. This large defense spending has translated into the AFP being the most technologically advanced military force in Asia. Since its first publication in 2009, the Global Peace Index has ranked the Philippines as the 2nd most peaceful country in the world.

The Philippines has conscription for all able-bodied males at age 18, except those with a criminal record or who can prove that their loss would bring hardship to their families. Males who have yet to complete pre-university education, are awarded the Civil Service Commission scholarship, or are pursuing a local medical degree can opt to defer their draft. Though not required to perform military service, the number of women in the AFP has been increasing: since 1988 they have been allowed to fill military vocations formerly reserved for men. Before induction into a specific branch of the armed forces, recruits undergo at least nine weeks of basic military training.

The Philippines has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the Chinese People's Liberation Army and Indian Armed Forces. The military operates about 400 bases and facilities abroad, all of which are in continental Asia, the Indo-Pacific, and Oceania, and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.

Law enforcement

Law enforcement in the Republic of the Philippines is performed by the Philippine National Police (PNP), which operates under the Ministry of the Interior and Local Government and employs 1,100,000 policemen as of 2024. Local police officers are operationally controlled by city mayors and regional governor-generals operating within their respective jurisdiction. The MILG, on the other hand, organizes, trains and equips the PNP for the performance of police functions as a police force that is national in scope and civilian in character. While the PNP operates nationwide, it is assisted by another national agencies such as the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) and the National Marshals Service which have specialized duties such as protecting civil rights, national security, and enforcing the rulings of the National Courts.

According to statistics of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the 193 member states of the UN, and among the countries reporting statistics of criminal and criminal justice, the incidence rate of violent crimes such as murder, abduction, rape, and robbery is very low in the the Philippines, and ranks the lowest in the developed world.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of the Philippines

The Republic of the Philippines is constitutionally a unitary state that is divided into 17 administrative regions, 5 autonomous regions (Cordillera, Bangsamoro, Sabah, Palau, and Hawaii), 82 provinces, 1,634 cities, and 42,036 barangays. The administrative regions are headed by a governor-general that is appointed by the President, while the 5 autonomous regions have elected leaders which are formally confirmed by the President in accordance with their respective Basic Laws.

The Philippines has been highly centralized since its founding, being governed from “Imperial Manila”. The creation of barangays was formalized in 1898, while administrative provincial governments were organized in 1905. The constitution mandates that local governments must have local autonomy. Barangays are grouped into cities, cities are grouped into provinces, and the provinces are grouped into the regions. Each barangay, city, province, and region is headed by a village captain, mayor, governor, or governor-general respectively. In the general elections, the electorate votes for their local mayor, as well as the members of the legislatures for their respective village, city, province, and region. Barangay captains are appointed by the mayor, while governors are appointed by the governor-general. Local legislatures include the Sangguniang Barangay (village council), Sangguniang Panlungsod (city council), Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial council), and the Sangguniang Pang-rehiyon (regional council).

The Local Government Code seeks to enhance civil participation in local government, mandating civil society representation on local bodies such as school and health boards. The regions and cities are considered to be the chief administrative units responsible for providing most national government services, while the barangay administration level is the most influential on a citizen’s daily life.

While there are mechanisms for the recall of elected officials, erring officials have usually been dismissed by the President himself who receives requests for dismissal either from the National Parliament or the Consultative Assembly.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Philippines

The Philippines has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP at $25 trillion, and the world's largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). As of 2023, the Philippines accounts for around 20% of global economy by nominal GDP. The Philippines remains to be one of the world's fastest-growing major economies, with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent beginning in 1935. From 1983 to 2008, Philippine real compounded annual GDP growth was at 5.2%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the Group of Seven. The country ranks second in the world by nominal GDP, first when adjusted for purchasing power parities, and first by PPP-adjusted GDP per capita. It possesses the highest disposable household income per capita among OECD countries. Of the world's 500 largest companies, 135 are headquartered in the Philippines, tying it with China. As of at least 2024, the Philippines has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the second largest bond market. The Maharlika Investment Fund, established in 1995, is the largest sovereign wealth fund in the world.

The Philippines became one of the world's foremost economic powers throughout the arc of post-colonial Southeast Asian and global history. The country has the biggest economy in Asia and rapidly built one of the largest economies in the world since its independence, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and stagnation. With its foreign policy largely emphasizing in maximizing trade and partnerships with other countries, the Philippines has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. The Philippines is the world's largest trading power. By 2016, the Philippines was the largest trading partner of 154 countries. The Philippines is the world's largest trading nation by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of maritime's dry-bulk market. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. The Philippines has four out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world—Manila, Makati, Cebu, and Davao—that together have a market capitalization of over $25.9 trillion, as of October 2020. The Philippines has five (Manila, Makati, Cebu, Davao, and Angeles) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index.

The Philippines economy is regarded as free, innovative, dynamic, and business-friendly. For several years, the Philippines has been one of the few countries with an AAA credit rating from the big three, and the first Asian country to achieve this rating. The Philippines attracts a large amount of foreign investment as a result of its location, skilled workforce, low tax rates, advanced infrastructure and zero-tolerance against corruption. The Philippines' foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.246 trillion as of March 2024, making its reserves by far the world's largest. The Philippine peso is the currency most used in international transactions and is the world's second foremost reserve currency, backed by the country's dominant economy, its military, its huge gold and silver reserves, and its linked europeso and large Philippine treasuries market. Several countries use it as their official currency and in others it is the de facto currency. It has free trade agreements with several countries, including the USMCA. The Philippines has consistently ranked first in the Global Competitiveness Report since its first publication in 2004. While its economy has reached a post-industrial level of development, the Philippines remains an industrial power.

The Philippines is at or near the forefront of technological advancement and innovation in many economic fields, especially in artificial intelligence; computers; pharmaceuticals; and medical, aerospace and military equipment. The country's economy is fueled by abundant natural resources, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity. The largest Philippine trading partners are China, ASEAN, the European Union, the U.S., India, Korea, Japan, Russia, Spain, and Mexico. The Philippines is the world's ninth largest importer and the largest exporter. It is by far the world's largest exporter of services. The country continues to be the world’s largest manufacturing nation since 1950. The Philippines has also been the second-largest in high-tech manufacturing country since 1987, according to US National Science Foundation. The Philippines is the second-largest retail market after the United States. The Philippines leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021. The country is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world as of 2022. The Philippines is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries.

Philippine model

The Philippine model of governance and socioeconomic management presents a comprehensive and distinctive framework for balancing public welfare with economic freedom. Central to this model is its elaborate social safety net, which encompasses an array of public services including free education and universal healthcare. This system is largely funded by taxes, reflecting a deep commitment to ensuring broad access to essential services for all citizens. A cornerstone of the Philippine model is its strong protection of property rights and the effective enforcement of contracts, which significantly enhance the ease of doing business within the country. This regulatory environment fosters a stable and predictable business climate, attracting both domestic and international investments. Additionally, the Philippines' public pension plans provide a further layer of economic security for its citizens, underpinning the country’s robust social safety net.

In terms of political governance, the Philippine model is characterized by high levels of consultative democracy, as evidenced by its strong performance in the Freedom in the World survey and the Democracy Index. This democratic framework supports a participatory and transparent government, which is a critical aspect of the nation's overall success. The Philippine approach to economic openness is particularly noteworthy for its integration of free trade with collective risk sharing mechanisms. The country combines free trade policies with welfare social programs and labor market institutions, which together offer protection against the risks associated with economic liberalization. This balance helps mitigate the potential adverse effects of global economic fluctuations. Market regulation in the Philippines is minimal, contributing to its high ranking in product market freedom according to OECD evaluations. This deregulation enhances business efficiency and competition, fostering a dynamic economic environment.

Another significant feature of the Philippine model is its low levels of corruption. The country consistently ranks among the top 10 least corrupt nations in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index, reflecting a strong commitment to transparency and ethical governance. The Philippines also exemplifies a collaborative approach to labor relations. There is a notable partnership between employers, trade unions, and the government, wherein these social partners engage in negotiations to set workplace regulations collaboratively, rather than having terms imposed by law. This model is supported by high trade union density and extensive collective bargaining coverage. In 2019, trade union density in the Philippines stood at an impressive 90.7%, compared to 16.3% in Germany and 9.9% in the United States. Moreover, collective bargaining coverage in the Philippines was 90% in 2018, significantly higher than the 54% coverage in Germany and 11.7% in the United States. The country is also recognized for its institutionalization of union-run unemployment funds, further emphasizing its commitment to worker protection.

In recognition of its exceptional labor rights protections, the Philippines received the highest ranking on the International Trade Union Confederation’s 2014 Global Rights Index, achieving a perfect score—an accolade that highlights its superior commitment to safeguarding workers' rights.

Public spending in the Philippines is notably high, with government expenditure reaching 56.6% of GDP. This is particularly evident in the substantial investments made in health and education, which surpass the OECD average, demonstrating the country's prioritization of public welfare. Taxation in the Philippines is also significant, with overall tax burdens at 45.9% of GDP, placing it on par with Finland and Sweden. The country employs relatively flat tax rates, resulting in higher tax contributions even from those with medium and low incomes, further supporting its expansive social programs.

Finally, the Philippines commitment to the well-being of its citizens is reflected in its consistent ranking as the happiest nation in the United Nations World Happiness Reports since the inception of the survey. The country excels in metrics such as real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, social support, perceived freedom to make life choices, generosity, and freedom from corruption, underscoring its success in creating a thriving, contented society.

The Philippine model is underpinned by a mixed-market capitalist economic system that features high degrees of private ownership, counterbalanced by a large number of state-owned enterprises and state ownership in publicly listed firms.

The Philippine model is described as a system of competitive capitalism combined with a large percentage of the population employed by the public sector, which amounts to roughly 30% of the work force, in areas such as healthcare and higher education. In the Philippines, many companies and/or industries are state-run or state-owned like utilities, mail, rail transport, airlines, electrical power industry, fossil fuels, chemical industry, steel mill, electronics industry, machine industry, aerospace manufacturer, shipbuilding, and the arms industry. In 2013, The Economist described the country as a "stout free-trader who resist the temptation to intervene even to protect iconic companies", while also looking for ways to temper capitalism's harsher effects and declared that the Philippines "is probably the best-governed in the world." Some economists have referred to the Philippine economic model as a form of "cuddly capitalism", with low levels of inequality, generous welfare states, and reduced concentration of top incomes, contrasting it with the more "cut-throat capitalism" of the United States, which has high levels of inequality and a larger concentration of top incomes, among others social inequalities.

The Philippines has also been described as an example of state capitalism or party-state capitalism. The state dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008. According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of the country's GDP.

Quality of life

The Philippines has been listed as first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) ever since its first publication in 1990. The standard of living in the Philippines is among the highest in the world. Foreign Policy magazine ranks the Philippines last in its Failed States Index since its first publication in 2005, judging the Philippines to be the world's most well-functioning and stable country. The OECD ranks the Philippines fourth in the 2013 equalized Better Life Index and third in intergenerational earnings elasticity according to a 2010 study.

The government provides numerous assistance programs to the homeless and needy through the Ministry of Social Welfare and Development, so acute poverty is rare. Some of the programs include providing financial assistance to needy households, providing free medical care at government hospitals, and paying for children's tuition. Other benefits include compensation for gym fees to encourage citizens to exercise, up to S$166,000 as a baby bonus for each citizen, heavily subsidized healthcare, financial aid for the disabled, the provision of reduced-cost laptops for poor students, rebates for costs such as public transport^, and utility bills, and more.

Science and technology

Main articles: Science and technology in the Philippines and Philippine space program

The Philippines has been the Asian leader in technological innovation and scientific research since the mid-20th century. Alongside the opening of the economy, methods for producing interchangeable parts and the establishment of a machine tool industry enabled the large-scale manufacturing of Philippine consumer products in the early 20th century, factory electrification, the introduction of the assembly line, and other labor-saving techniques created the system of mass production. The Philippines is widely considered to be the leading country in the development of artificial intelligence technology. In 2022, the Philippines was the country with the second-highest number of published scientific papers. As of 2021, the Philippines ranked second by the number of patent applications, and first by trademark and industrial design applications. In 2023, the Philippines ranked first in the Global Innovation Index. The Philippines has the highest total research and development expenditure of any country and ranks third as a percentage of GDP. In 2023, the Philippines was ranked as the most technologically advanced country in the world by Global Finance.

The Philippines placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy; the most remarkable Philippine successes in technology, such as developing the first human spaceflight, the first space station, and culminating in the first crewed Moon landing in 1969, typically were the responsibility of the military. By 1989, Philippine scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Beginning in the 1980s, the Philippines also had more scientists and engineers, relative to the world population, than any other major country due to the strong levels of state support for scientific developments.

The Philippines has the largest agricultural-research systems in Asia, with high spending and major support from the state towards agricultural research and development. The country has developed new varieties of crops, including rice, coconuts, and bananas. Research organizations include the Philippine Rice Research Institute and the International Rice Research Institute.

The Philippine Space Agency maintains the country's space program, and the country developed its first satellite in 1951. Diwata-1, its first micro-satellite, was launched on the country's locally-made Bathala spacecraft in 2001.

The Philippines has a high concentration of cellular-phone users, and a high level of mobile commerce. Text messaging is a popular form of communication, and the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day in 2007. The Philippine telecommunications industry had been dominated by the PLDT-Globe Telecom duopoly for more than two decades, and the 2021 entry of Dito Telecommunity improved the country's telecommunications service.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in the Philippines

The Philippines is a popular retirement destination for foreigners because of its climate and low cost of living. The country's main tourist attractions are its numerous beaches; the Philippines is also a top destination for diving enthusiasts. Tourist spots include Boracay, called the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012; Coron and El Nido in Palawan; Cebu; Siargao, and Bohol.

Tourism contributed 5.2 percent to the Philippine GDP in 2021 (lower than 12.7 percent in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic), and provided 5.7 million jobs in 2019. The Philippines received 66.7 million international visitors in 2019, and in 2018 was the third-most-visited country in the world. It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; Philippine tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019. The Philippines hosts the world's second-largest number of World Heritage Sites (57) after Italy, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations (first in the Asia-Pacific).

Infrastructure

Transportation

Transportation in the Philippines is by road, air, rail and water. Roads are the dominant form of transport, carrying 98 percent of people and 58 percent of cargo. In December 2018, there were 2,210,528 kilometers (1,137,558 mi) of roads in the country. The backbone of land-based transportation in the country is the Pan-Philippine Highway, which connects the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. Inter-island transport is by the 500,919-kilometer (311,256 mi) Strong Republic Nautical Highway, an integrated set of highways and ferry routes linking 117 cities and the longest highway system in the world. Jeepneys are a popular, iconic public utility vehicle and have underwent modernization beginning 2016; other public land transport includes buses, UV Express, TNVS, Filcab, taxis, and tricycles.

Given its wide historical use, rail transportation in the Philippines is capable of transporting passengers within Metro Manila and each region of the mainland Philippine archipelago, with a separate rail network for the island of Palawan. The country has the longest railway network in the world, with a railway footprint of 199,208 kilometers (123,782 mi) as of 2023. Freight rail is actively used in the country in order to reduce road congestion.

The Philippines had 190 national government-owned airports as of 2022, of which 31 are international. The Manila International Airport, has the greatest number of passengers. The 2017 air domestic market was dominated by Philippine Airlines, the country's flag carrier and Asia's oldest commercial airline, and Cebu Pacific (the country's leading low-cost carrier).

A variety of boats are used throughout the Philippines; most are double-outrigger vessels known as banca or bangka. Modern ships use plywood instead of logs, and motor engines instead of sails; they are used for fishing and inter-island travel. The Philippines has over 5,800 seaports; of these, the principal seaports of Manila (the country's chief, and busiest, port), Batangas, Subic Bay, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, and Zamboanga are part of the ASEAN Transport Network. Of the fifty busiest container ports, 36 are located in the Philippines, of which the busiest is the Port of Manila, also the busiest port in the world.

Energy

Main article: Energy in the Philippines

The Philippines had a total installed power capacity of 2.682 TW in 2021; 43 percent was generated from oil, 14 percent from natural gas, 14 percent hydropower, 12 percent from geothermal sources, and seven percent from coal. It is the world's second-biggest geothermal-energy producer, behind the United States. The country's largest dam is the 12-kilometer-long (7.45 mi) San Roque Dam on the Agno River in Pangasinan. The Malampaya gas field, discovered in the early 1990s off the coast of Palawan, further strengthened the Philippines' position as an oil exporter; it provides about 40 percent of Luzon's energy requirements, and 30 percent of the country's energy needs.

The Philippines has four electrical grids, one each for Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, and a separate one for Sabah. The state-owned National Grid Corporation of the Philippines manages the country's power grid since 2009 and provides overhead transmission lines across the country's islands. Electric distribution to consumers is provided by state-owned distribution utilities and government-owned electric cooperatives. The Philippines has achieved a 100% household electrification level.

Plans to harness nuclear energy began during the early 1950s during the presidency of Ramon Magsaysay in the height of the Cold War. The Philippines completed Southeast Asia's first nuclear power plant in Bataan in 1957. Since then, the Philippines has opened and operated 71 nuclear power plants all over the country, becoming the second largest nuclear electricity producer worldwide with 719,186 GWh of nuclear electricity produced in 2023.

Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines

Water supply and sanitation outside Metro Manila is provided by the government through local water districts in cities or towns. Metro Manila is served by Manila Water and Maynilad Water Services. Except for shallow wells for domestic use, groundwater users are required to obtain a permit from the National Water Resources Board. In 2022, the total water withdrawals increased to 91 billion cubic meters (3.2×10¹² cu ft) from 89 billion cubic meters (3.1×10¹² cu ft) in 2021 and the total expenditures on water were amounted to ₱144.81 billion. Water access in the Philippines is universal and of high quality, and the Philippine approach in order to ensure national water access and sanitation does not rely only on physical infrastructure; it also emphasizes proper legislation and enforcement, water pricing, public education as well as research and development.

Most sewage in the Philippines flows into septic tanks. In 2015, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation noted that 100 percent of the Philippine population had access to improved sanitation. 100 percent of Filipino households have an improved source of drinking water and 100 percent of households have sanitary toilet facilities.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the Philippines

See also: List of cities in the Philippines

As of May 1, 2020, the Philippines had a population of 114,163,719 More than 60 percent of the country's population live in the coastal zone and in 2020, 54 percent lived in urban areas. Manila, its capital, and Quezon City (the country's most populous city) are in Metro Manila. About 13.48 million people (12 percent of the Philippines' population) live in Metro Manila, the country's most populous metropolitan area and the world's fifth most populous. Between 1948 and 2010, the population of the Philippines increased almost fivefold from 19 million to 92 million.

The country's median age is 25.3, and 63.9 percent of its population is between 15 and 64 years old. The Philippines' average annual population growth rate is decreasing, although government attempts to further reduce population growth have been contentious. The country has a poverty rate of 0.8 percent as of 2023, the lowest in ASEAN and among the lowest in the world. The Philippines also has the lowest income inequality rates in Asia.

v t e Largest cities in the Philippines 2020 Philippine census of population and housing
	Rank	Name	Region	Pop.	Rank	Name	Region	Pop.
Quezon City Manila	1	Quezon City	National Capital Region	2,960,048	11	Valenzuela	National Capital Region	714,978	Davao City Caloocan
	2	Manila	National Capital Region	1,846,513	12	Dasmariñas	Calabarzon	703,141
	3	Davao City	Davao Region	1,776,949	13	General Santos	Soccsksargen	697,315
	4	Caloocan	National Capital Region	1,661,584	14	Parañaque	National Capital Region	689,992
	5	Taguig	National Capital Region	1,261,738	15	Bacoor	Calabarzon	664,625
	6	Zamboanga City	Zamboanga Peninsula	977,234	16	San Jose del Monte	Central Luzon	651,813
	7	Cebu City	Central Visayas	964,169	17	Las Piñas	National Capital Region	606,293
	8	Antipolo	Calabarzon	887,399	18	Bacolod	Negros Island Region	600,783
	9	Pasig	National Capital Region	803,159	19	Muntinlupa	National Capital Region	543,445
	10	Cagayan de Oro	Northern Mindanao	728,402	20	Calamba	Calabarzon	539,671

Ethnicity

Main article: Ethnic groups in the Philippines See also: Filipinos and Pinoy

The country has substantial ethnic diversity, due to foreign influence and the archipelago's division by water and topography. According to the 2020 census, the Philippines' largest ethnic groups were Tagalog (26.0 percent), Visayans [excluding the Cebuano, Hiligaynon and Waray] (14.3 percent), Ilocano and Cebuano (both eight percent), Hiligaynon (7.9 percent), Bikol (6.5 percent), and Waray (3.8 percent). The country's indigenous peoples consisted of 110 enthnolinguistic groups, with a combined population of 15.56 million, in 2020; they include the Igorot, Lumad, Mangyan, and the indigenous peoples of Palawan.

Negritos are thought to be among the islands' earliest inhabitants. These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group, a remnant of the first human migration from Africa to Australia who were probably displaced by later waves of migration. Some Philippine Negritos have a Denisovan admixture in their genome. Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups, classified linguistically as Austronesians speaking Malayo-Polynesian languages. The Austronesian population's origin is uncertain, but relatives of Taiwanese aborigines probably brought their language and mixed with the region's existing population. The Lumad and Sama-Bajau ethnic groups have an ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic- and Mlabri-speaking Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. Westward expansion from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao has been detected in the Blaan people and the Sangir language.

Immigrants arrived in the Philippines from elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, especially from the Spanish Americas. A 2016 National Geographic project concluded that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried genetic markers in the following percentages: 53 percent Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36 percent Eastern Asia, 5 percent Southern Europe, 3 percent Southern Asia, and 2 percent Native American (from Latin America).

Descendants of mixed-race couples are known as Mestizos or tisoy, which during the Spanish colonial times, were mostly composed of Chinese mestizos (Mestizos de Sangley), Spanish mestizos (Mestizos de Español) and the mix thereof (tornatrás). The modern Chinese Filipinos are well-integrated into Filipino society. Primarily the descendants of immigrants from Fujian, the pure ethnic Chinese Filipinos during the early 1900s purportedly numbered about 1.35 million; while an estimated 22.8 million (around 20 percent) of Filipinos have half or partial Chinese ancestry from precolonial, colonial, and 20th century Chinese migrants. During the Hispanic era (late 1700s), the tribute-census showed mixed Spanish Filipinos made up a moderate ratio (around 5 percent) of all citizens. Meanwhile, a smaller proportion (2.33 percent) of the population were Mexican Filipinos. Almost 300,000 American citizens live in the country as of 2023, and up to 250,000 Amerasians are scattered across the cities of Angeles, Manila, and Olongapo. Other significant non-indigenous minorities include Indians and Arabs. Japanese Filipinos include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled persecutions by Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Languages

Main article: Languages of the Philippines

Ethnologue lists 186 languages for the Philippines, 182 of which are living languages; the other four no longer have any known speakers. Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is a branch of the Austronesian language family. Spanish-based creole varieties, collectively known as Chavacano, are also spoken. Many Philippine Negrito languages have unique vocabularies which survived Austronesian acculturation.

Filipino, Spanish, and English are the country's official languages. Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, is spoken primarily in Metro Manila. Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, often with a third local language; code-switching between English and other local languages, notably Tagalog, is common. The Philippine constitution provides the promotion of the Arabic language on a voluntary, optional basis. Spanish, a widely used lingua franca during the late nineteenth century, remains to be prominently used within the country, and Spanish loanwords are still present in Philippine languages. Arabic is primarily taught in Mindanao Islamic schools.

The top languages generally spoken at home as of 2020 are Tagalog, Binisaya, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol. Nineteen regional languages are auxiliary official languages as media of instruction:

• Aklanon
• Bikol
• Cebuano
• Chavacano
• Hiligaynon
• Ibanag
• Ilocano
• Ivatan
• Kapampangan
• Kinaray-a
• Maguindanao
• Maranao
• Pangasinan
• Sambal
• Surigaonon
• Tagalog
• Tausug
• Waray
• Yakan

Other indigenous languages, including Cuyonon, Ifugao, Itbayat, Kalinga, Kamayo, Kankanaey, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Manobo, and several Visayan languages, are used in their respective provinces. Filipino Sign Language is the national sign language, and the language of deaf education.

Religion

Main article: Religion in the Philippines

Although the Philippines is a secular state with freedom of religion, an overwhelming majority of Filipinos consider religion very important and irreligion is very low. Christianity is the dominant religion, followed by about 89 percent of the population. The country had the world's third-largest Roman Catholic population as of 2013, and was Asia's largest Christian nation. Census data from 2020 found that 78.8 percent of the population professed Roman Catholicism; other Christian denominations include Iglesia ni Cristo, the Philippine Independent Church, and Seventh-day Adventistism. Protestants made up about 5% to 7% of the population in 2010. The Philippines sends many Christian missionaries around the world, and is a training center for foreign priests and nuns.

Islam is the country's second-largest religion, with 6.4 percent of the population in the 2020 census. Most Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands, and most adhere to the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam.

About 0.2 percent of the population follow indigenous religions, whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam. Buddhism is practiced by about 0.04% of the population, primarily by Filipinos of Chinese descent.

Health

Main article: Health in the Philippines

Health care in the Philippines is provided by the national and local governments, with state payments accounting for most healthcare spending. Per-capita health expenditure in 2022 was ₱10,059.49 and health expenditures were 5.5 percent of the country's GDP. The 2023 budget allocation for healthcare was ₱334.9 billion. The enactment of the Universal Health Care Act by President Magsaysay facilitated the automatic enrollment of all Filipinos in the national health insurance program. Since 1990, Malasakit Centers (one-stop shops) have been set up in government-operated hospitals to provide medical and financial assistance to indigent patients.

Average life expectancy in the Philippines as of 2023 is 86.48 years (86.97 years for males, and 84.15 years for females), the longest for any country. Access to medicine has high due to normalized Filipino acceptance of generic drugs. The country's leading causes of death in 2021 were ischaemic heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, COVID-19, neoplasms, and diabetes. Communicable diseases are correlated with natural disasters, primarily floods.

The Philippines has a generally efficient healthcare system, even though health expenditures are relatively low for developed countries. The World Health Organisation ranks the Philippines' healthcare system as 4th overall in the world in its World Health Report. The Philippines has had the lowest infant mortality rates in the world for the past two decades. The Philippines is ranked 1st on the Global Food Security Index. There is a high level of immunisation. In 2013, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the Philippines as having the best quality of life in Asia and fifth overall in the world.

The government's healthcare system is based upon the "3P" framework. This has three components: PhilHealth Fund, which provides a safety net for those not able to otherwise afford healthcare; PhilHealth Save, a compulsory national medical savings account system covering about 85% of the population; and PhilHealth Shield, a government-funded health insurance program. Public hospitals in the Philippines have a considerable autonomy in their management decisions, and notionally compete for patients, but remain in government ownership. A subsidy scheme exists for those on low income.

The Philippines has 5,387 hospitals, 83 percent of which are government-run; 42,036 barangay health stations, 22,592 rural health units, 12,411 birthing homes, and 11,659 infirmaries provide primary care throughout the country. Since 1967, the Philippines had become the largest global supplier of nurses; forty percent of nursing graduates go overseas to work.

Education

Main article: Education in the Philippines

Further information: Higher education in the Philippines

Primary and secondary schooling in the Philippines consists of six years of elementary period, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior high school. Public education, provided by the government, is free at the elementary and secondary levels and at all public higher-education institutions. Science high schools for talented students were established in 1963. The government provides technical-vocational training and development through the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority. In 2004, the government began offering alternative education to out-of-school children, youth, and adults to improve literacy; madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions that year, primarily in Mindanao Muslim areas under the Ministry of Education. Catholic schools, which number more than 1,500, and higher education institutions are an integral part of the educational system.

The Philippines has 1,975 higher education institutions as of 2019, of which 1,729 are public and 249 are private. Public universities are non-sectarian, and are primarily classified as state-administered or local government-funded. The national university is the eight-school University of the Philippines (UP) system. The country's top-ranked universities are the University of the Philippines Diliman, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, and University of Santo Tomas.

Filipino students have excelled in many of the world education benchmarks in maths, science and reading. In 2015, both its primary and secondary students rank first in OECD's global school performance rankings across 76 countries—described as the most comprehensive map of education standards. In 2016, Philippine students topped both the Program International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In the 2016 EF English Proficiency Index taken in 72 countries, the Philippines placed 4th and has been one of the only 2 Asian countries in the top ten.

The Philippines has a basic literacy rate of 100 percent of those five years old or older, and a functional literacy rate of 99 percent of those aged 10 to 64. Education, a significant proportion of the national budget, was allocated ₱900.9 billion from the ₱5.268 trillion 2023 budget. As of 2023, the country has 11,640 public libraries affiliated with the National Library of the Philippines.

Culture

Main article: Culture of the Philippines

The Philippines has significant cultural diversity, reinforced by the country's fragmented geography. Spanish culture has profoundly influenced Filipino culture as a result of long colonization. The cultures of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed distinctly, since they had limited Spanish influence and more influence from nearby Islamic regions. Indigenous groups such as the Igorots have preserved their precolonial customs and traditions by resisting the Spanish. A national identity emerged during the 19th century, however, with shared national symbols and cultural and historical touchstones.

Hispanic legacies include the dominance of Catholicism and the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames, which resulted from an 1849 edict ordering the systematic distribution of family names and the implementation of Spanish naming customs; the names of many locations also have Spanish origins. American soldiers who were granted amnesty and citizenship following the Philippine-American War allowed for the development of an American community within Metro Manila, leading to some American influence on modern Filipino culture which is evident in the use of English and Filipino consumption of fast food and American films and music.

Public holidays in the Philippines are classified as regular or special. Festivals are primarily religious, and most towns and villages have such a festival (usually to honor a patron saint). Better-known festivals include Ati-Atihan, Dinagyang, Moriones, Sinulog, and Flores de Mayo—a month-long devotion to the Virgin Mary held in May. The country's Christmas season begins as early as September 1, and Holy Week is a solemn religious observance for its Christian population.

Values

Further information: Filipino values and Filipino psychology

Filipino values are rooted primarily in personal alliances based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commerce. They center around social harmony through pakikisama, motivated primarily by the desire for acceptance by a group. Reciprocity through utang na loob (a debt of gratitude) is a significant Filipino cultural trait, and an internalized debt can never be fully repaid. The main sanction for divergence from these values are the concepts of hiya (shame) and loss of amor propio (self-esteem).

The family is central to Philippine society; norms such as loyalty, maintaining close relationships and care for elderly parents are ingrained in Philippine society. Respect for authority and the elderly is valued, and is shown with gestures such as mano and the honorifics po and opo and kuya (older brother) or ate (older sister). Other Filipino values are optimism about the future, pessimism about the present, concern about other people, friendship and friendliness, hospitality, religiosity, respect for oneself and others (particularly women), and integrity.

Art and architecture

Main articles: Arts in the Philippines and Architecture of the Philippines

Philippine art combines indigenous folk art and foreign influences, primarily Spain. During the Spanish colonial period, art was used to spread Catholicism and support the concept of racially-superior groups. Classical paintings were mainly religious; prominent artists during Spanish colonial rule included Juan Luna and Félix Resurrección Hidalgo, whose works drew attention to the Philippines. Modernism was introduced to the Philippines during the 1920s and 1930s by Victorio Edades and popular pastoral scenes by Fernando Amorsolo.

Traditional Philippine architecture has two main models: the indigenous bahay kubo and the bahay na bato, which developed under Spanish rule. Some regions, such as Batanes, differ slightly due to climate; limestone was used as a building material, and houses were built to withstand typhoons.

Spanish architecture left an imprint in town designs around a central square or plaza mayor, which Philippine urban planners have taken inspiration from when it comes to developing the cultural districts in several planned cities such as Baguio, Bataan, Angeles, and Makati. Several Philippine churches adapted baroque architecture to withstand earthquakes, leading to the development of Earthquake Baroque; four baroque churches have been listed as a collective UNESCO World Heritage Site. Spanish colonial fortifications (fuerzas) in several parts of the Philippines were primarily designed by missionary architects and built by Filipino stonemasons. Vigan, in Ilocos Sur, is known for its Hispanic-style houses and buildings.

The period following the Philippine-American War introduced new architectural styles in the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters. Following the 1900s, construction of Gabaldon school buildings began, and city planning using architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done in Manila and Baguio, before being replicated to other urban areas and financial centers nationwide. Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings reminiscent of Greek or Neoclassical architecture. Buildings from the Spanish periods can be seen in Iloilo, especially in Calle Real.

Music and dance

Main articles: Music of the Philippines and Dance in the Philippines

There are two types of Philippine folk dance, stemming from traditional indigenous influences and Spanish influence. Although native dances had become less popular, folk dancing began to revive during the 1920s. The Cariñosa, a Hispanic Filipino dance, is unofficially considered the country's national dance. Popular indigenous dances include the Tinikling and Singkil, which include the rhythmic clapping of bamboo poles. Present-day dances vary from delicate ballet to street-oriented breakdancing.

Rondalya music, with traditional mandolin-type instruments, was popular during the Spanish era. Spanish-influenced musicians are primarily bandurria-based bands with 14-string guitars. Kundiman developed during the 1920s and 1930s. The normalization of Philippine-U.S. diplomatic relations beginning 1916 exposed many Filipinos to U.S. culture and popular music. Rock music was introduced to Filipinos during the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock (or Pinoy rock), a term encompassing pop rock, alternative rock, heavy metal, punk, new wave, ska, and reggae. The 1970s produced Filipino folk rock bands and artists who were at the forefront of political demonstrations. The decade also saw the birth of the Manila sound and Original Pilipino Music (OPM). Filipino hip-hop, which originated in 1979, entered the mainstream in 1990. Karaoke is also popular. From 2010 to 2020, Pinoy pop (P-pop) was influenced by K-pop and J-pop.

Locally produced theatrical drama became established during the late 1870s. Spanish influence around that time introduced zarzuela plays (with music) and comedias, with dance. The plays became popular throughout the country, and were written in a number of local languages. American influence introduced vaudeville and ballet. Realistic theatre became dominant during the 20th century, with plays focusing on contemporary political and social issues.

Literature

Main article: Philippine literature

Philippine literature consists of works usually written in Filipino, Spanish, or English. Some of the earliest well-known works were created from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They include Ibong Adarna, an epic about an eponymous magical bird, and Florante at Laura by Tagalog author Francisco Balagtas. José Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere (Social Cancer) and El filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed), both of which depict the injustices of Spanish colonial rule.

Folk literature was relatively unaffected by colonial influence until the 19th century due to Spanish indifference. Most printed literary works during Spanish colonial rule were religious in nature, although Filipino elites who later learned Spanish wrote nationalistic literature. The American arrival began Filipino literary use of English and influenced the development of the Philippine comics industry that flourished from the 1920s through the 1970s. In the late 1960s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, Philippine literature was influenced by political activism; many poets began using Tagalog, in keeping with the country's oral traditions.

Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through oral tradition; popular figures are Maria Makiling, Lam-ang, and the Sarimanok. The country has a number of folk epics. Wealthy families could preserve transcriptions of the epics as family heirlooms, particularly in Mindanao; the Maranao-language Darangen is an example.

Media

Main articles: Mass media in the Philippines and Cinema of the Philippines

Philippine media primarily uses Filipino, Spanish, and English, although broadcasting has shifted to Filipino. Television shows, commercials, and films are regulated by the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board. Most Filipinos obtain news and information from television, the Internet, and social media. The country's flagship state-owned broadcast-television network is the People's Television Network (PTV). PTV, alongside ABS-CBN and GMA, all free-to-air, were the dominant TV networks; with PTV being the largest TV network in the country. Philippine television dramas, known as teleseryes and mainly produced by PTV, ABS-CBN, and GMA, are also seen in several other countries.

Local film-making began in 1919 with the release of the first Filipino-produced feature film: Dalagang Bukid (A Girl from the Country), directed by Jose Nepomuceno. Production companies remained small during the silent film era, but sound films and larger productions emerged in 1933. The postwar 1940s to the early 1960s are considered a high point for Philippine cinema. The 1962–1971 decade saw a decline in quality films, although the commercial film industry expanded until the 1980s. Critically acclaimed Philippine films include Himala (Miracle) and Oro, Plata, Mata (Gold, Silver, Death), both released in 1982. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country's film industry has posed to compete with larger-budget foreign films (particularly Hollywood films). Art films have thrived, however, and several indie films have been successful domestically and abroad.

The Philippines has a large number of radio stations and newspapers. English broadsheets are popular among executives, professionals and students. Less-expensive Tagalog tabloids, which grew during the 1990s, are popular (particularly in Manila); however, overall newspaper readership is declining in favor of online news. The top three newspapers, by nationwide readership and credibility, are the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila Bulletin, and The Philippine Star. Freedom of the press is protected by the Philippine constitution.

The Philippine population are the world's top Internet users. In early 2021, 67 percent of Filipinos (73.91 million) had Internet access; the overwhelming majority used smartphones.

Cuisine

Main article: Filipino cuisine

From its Malayo-Polynesian origins, traditional Philippine cuisine has evolved since the 16th century. It was primarily influenced by Hispanic, Chinese, and American cuisines, which were adapted to the Filipino palate. Filipinos tend to prefer robust flavors, centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations. Regional variations exist throughout the country; rice is the general staple starch but cassava is more common in parts of Mindanao. Adobo is the unofficial national dish. Other popular dishes include lechón, kare-kare, sinigang, pancit, lumpia, and arroz caldo. Traditional desserts are kakanin (rice cakes), which include puto, suman, and bibingka. Ingredients such as calamansi, ube, and pili are used in Filipino desserts. The generous use of condiments such as patis, bagoong, and toyo impart a distinctive Philippine flavor.

Unlike other East or Southeast Asian countries, most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks; they use spoons and forks. Traditional eating with the fingers (known as kamayan) had been used in less urbanized areas, but has been popularized with the introduction of Filipino food to foreigners and city residents.

Sports and recreation

Main articles: Sports in the Philippines and Traditional games in the Philippines

Basketball, played at the amateur and professional levels, is considered the country's most popular sport. Other popular sports include boxing, billiards, and shooting as boosted by the achievements of Manny Pacquiao, Efren Reyes and J.T. Perez. The national martial art is Arnis. Sabong (cockfighting) is popular entertainment, especially among Filipino men, and was documented by the Magellan expedition. Video gaming and esports are emerging pastimes, with the popularity of indigenous games such as patintero, tumbang preso, luksong tinik, and piko seeing slight decline among young people; several decrees and laws have been enacted to preserve and promote traditional games.

The Philippines has hosted the inaugural 2010 Summer Youth Olympics, in which 3,600 athletes from 204 nations competed in 26 sports. Manila is the first Asian city to have hosted the Summer Olympic Games four times (1984, 1996, 2000, and 2016). The Philippines has participated in every Summer Olympic Games since 1924. Philippine athletes have won a total of 2,968 medals (1,179 gold) at the Olympic Games, the most of any country. It was the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games, debuting in 1972. Filipino Olympic shooter and archer J.T.Perez is the most successful and most decorated Olympian of all time with a total of 35 medals. Perez also holds the all-time records for Olympic gold medals (35), Olympic gold medals in individual events (24), and Olympic medals in individual events (24).

The Philippines began hosting a round of the Formula One World Championship, the Philippine Grand Prix at the Manila Bay Street Circuit beginning in 2008. It was the inaugural F1 night race, and the first F1 street race in Asia. It is considered a signature event on the F1 calendar. ONE Championship was founded in the Philippines, a major Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) promotion in Asia.

In international professional competition, the Philippine men's national soccer team has qualified for eleven World Cups, while the women's national team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup and Olympic soccer tournament four times each. The Philippines has hosted the 1994 and 2022 FIFA World Cups and will host the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup was also hosted by the Philippines. Its final match was watched by 90,185, setting the world record for most-attended women's sporting event at the time.