History of Christianity

"Christian history" redirects here. For the magazine, see Christian History.

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Christianity.

Funerary stele of Licinia Amias on marble, in the National Roman Museum. One of the earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes from the early 3rd century Vatican necropolis area in Rome. It contains the text ΙΧΘΥϹ ΖΩΝΤΩΝ ("fish of the living"), a predecessor of the Ichthys symbol.

The history of Christianity begins with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who was crucified and died c. AD 30–33 in Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judea. Afterwards, his followers, a set of apocalyptic Jews, proclaimed him risen from the dead. Christianity began as a Jewish sect and remained so for centuries in some locations, diverging gradually from Judaism over doctrinal, social and historical differences. In spite of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, the faith spread as a grassroots movement that became established by the third-century both in and outside the empire. New Testament texts were written and church government was loosely organized in its first centuries, though the biblical canon did not become official until 382.

Constantine the Great was the first Roman Emperor to declare himself a Christian. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions. He did not make Christianity the state religion, but he did provide crucial support. Constantine called the first of seven ecumenical councils. In the fourth-century, Eastern and Western Christianity had already begun to diverge. Between 600 and 750, the constant need to defend itself in war turned the Eastern Roman Empire into the independent polity of Byzantium. Missionary activities spread Christianity across western Europe. Monks and nuns were prominent in establishing a Christendom that influenced every aspect of medieval life.

From the ninth-century into the twelfth, politicization and Christianization went hand-in-hand in developing East-Central Europe. Byzantine Christianity influenced the church, culture, language, literacy, and literature of Slavic countries and Russia. The Byzantine Empire was more prosperous than the Western Roman Empire, but centuries of Islamic aggression and the Crusades negatively impacted it. During the High Middle Ages, Eastern and Western Christianity had grown far enough apart that differences led to the East–West Schism of 1054. Temporary reunion was not achieved until the year before the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The fall of the Byzantine Empire ended the institutional Christian Church in the East as established under Constantine, though it survived in an altered form.

Various catastrophic circumstances, combined with a growing criticism of the Catholic Church in the 1300–1500s, led to the Protestant Reformation and its related reform movements. Reform, and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, were followed by the European wars of religion, the development of modern political concepts of tolerance, and the Age of Enlightenment. Christianity also influenced the New World.

After WWII Christianity faced many challenges. Traditional Christianity has declined in the West, while new forms have developed and expanded worldwide. Today, there are more than two billion Christians worldwide. Within the last century, the centre of growth has shifted from West to East and from the North to the Global South making Christianity a truly global religion in the twenty-first century.

Early Christianity (c. 27–100)

Main articles: Christianity in the 1st century and Early Christianity

The Roman province of Judea in the 1st century AD

Christianity emerged in the Roman province of Judea during the first-century. The first Christian communities were predominantly Jewish. The religious, social, and political climate in Judea was extremely diverse and characterized by turmoil. Judaism itself included numerous religious and political movements. The prophecy and poetry of one such movement, Jewish messianism, promised a future anointed leader descended from King David to restore the Israelite Kingdom of God and replace the foreign rulers. As indicated by their texts and organisation, the first Christians saw one man, Jesus, as that promised Messiah.

The crucifixion of Jesus, depicted in a painting by Pietro Perugino

Early Christianity began with the ministry of Jesus (c. 27–30). Jesus' existence and his crucifixion are historically well attested. Jesus saw his identity and mission, and that of his followers, in light of the kingdom of God and the prophetic tradition of Israel. His followers believed God's spirit was incarnated (embodied) in Jesus and that after his crucifixion, he rose from the dead. The Christian church established incarnation and resurrection as its first doctrines, with baptism and the celebration of the Eucharist meal (Jesus's Last Supper) as its two primary rituals.

Early Christians first gathered into small groups at people's homes. The owner of the house was the host and one of the patrons who gave financial support, and the typical setting for worship was the communal meal. This common meal was not yet different from the eucharistic meal, the formal celebration of bread and wine that commemorates Jesus' life and death. These house churches were overseen by a presbyter/bishop whose primary role was economic. Any responsibilities bishops may have had for leading ceremonial worship would still have been linked to the economic requirements of the meal and charitable distributions. Bishops soon began forming a Christian elite.

The Hellenized Greek-speaking Jews of Alexandria had produced the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, between the third and first centuries BC. This was the translation of the Hebrew Bible used by the apostles and early Christians. Christian writings in Koine Greek, including Gospels containing accounts of Jesus's ministry, letters of Paul, and letters attributed to other early Christian leaders, were written in the first-century and had considerable authority even in the formative period. The letters of the Apostle Paul sent to the early Christian communities were circulating in collected form by the end of the first-century.

Beginning with less than 1000 people, Christianity had grown to around one hundred small household churches consisting of an average of seventy members each, by the year 100. It spread through the Jewish diaspora along the trade and travel routes followed by merchants, soldiers, and migrating tribes. It had reached Ancient Greece, and probably Alexandria in the first century, leading to the development of Coptic Christianity. One follower, Paul the Apostle, was influential in the early spread of Christianity, making at least three missionary journeys and founding numerous churches in Asia Minor; Christianity in Antioch is mentioned in his epistles.

At the Council of Jerusalem, likely held in 49 or 50, the Jerusalem church gathered to address whether the increasing numbers of non-Jews who were joining the movement needed to follow Jewish law. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70, alongside the development of Rabbinic Judaism and disagreements about Jewish law or insurrections against Rome, contributed to the divergence of Jewish and Christian practices. Nevertheless, Jewish Christianity remained influential in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor into the second and third centuries.

Ante-Nicene period (100–312)

Main article: Christianity in the ante-Nicene period

See also: Women in Church history

Distribution of Christian congregations in Roman territories during each of the first three centuries AD

Christianity achieved critical mass in the years between 150 and 250 when it moved from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million. By the third century, it had reached as far as Roman Britain in the West, into North Africa, and into the Balkans in the East.

A more formal Church structure grew over the second and third centuries AD, and according to Carrington, that hierarchy developed at different times in different locations. Bishops began presiding over larger areas with multiple churches and rose in power and influence. The Ante-Nicene period included increasing but sporadic persecution from Roman authorities, and the rise of Christian sects, cults, and movements. The first persecution by a Roman emperor was under Nero, probably in 64 AD, when it is conjectured the Apostles Peter and Paul were killed.

Christian charity, 19th century work by Bertel Thorvaldsen

Early Christianity was open to everyone. Baptism was free, and there were no fees, which made Christianity a substantially cheaper form of worship compared with the traditional Roman models. The religion's inclusivity extended to women, who made up significant numbers of Christianity's earliest members, and who attained greater social freedom through religious activities than customary Roman expectations permitted. Women were prominent in early documentary sources such as church rolls or the Pauline epistles and ubiquitous in early Christian art, while much early anti-Christian criticism was linked to "female initiative", indicating their prominent role in the movement.

A key characteristic of Early Christianity was its unique type of exclusivity. Believing was the crucial and defining characteristic of membership— believers were separated from the "unbelievers" by a strong social boundary. This exclusivity gave Christianity the powerful psychological attraction of elitism.

A folio from Papyrus 46, an early third-century collection of Pauline epistles

By the early third-century, there existed a set of early Christian writings similar to the current New Testament. Although a general acceptance of the four gospels and the letters of Paul as authoritative is found in the second and third centuries, it is significant that church leaders assigned different degrees of authority to different writings. There were disputes over the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Epistle of James, the First and Second Epistle of Peter, the First Epistle of John, and the Book of Revelation. Gnostic texts emerged in the early second century challenging the physical nature of Jesus. In 172, Montanism suggested that current prophecy could supersede the apostles, and Monarchianism emphasized the unity of God over the Trinity. In the face of such diversity, the scriptures commonly used in worship provided some unity.

In 250, the emperor Decius made it a capital offense to refuse to make sacrifices to Roman gods, resulting in widespread persecution of Christians. Valerian pursued similar policies later that decade. The last and most severe official persecution, the Diocletianic Persecution, took place in 303–311. There was also periodic persecution of Christians by Persian Sassanian authorities and popular opposition from Graeco-Roman society at large. Christian authors of the second and third centuries were on the defensive, and the term Hellene became equated with pagan during this period.

Early Christian art

Main article: Early Christian art and architecture

One of the oldest representations of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the catacombs of Rome, made around 300 AD

There are few early records. What is most likely the oldest Christian art emerged on sarcophagi and in burial chambers in frescoes and statues from the late second to the early third-century. This art is a fusion of Graeco-Roman style and Christian symbolism. Jesus as the good shepherd is the most common image of this period.

Late antiquity (313–476)

Main article: Late Antiquity

Constantine (c. 272–337)

Main article: Religious policies of Constantine the Great

See also: Papal primacy

Constantine the Great became emperor in the West, declared himself a Christian, and in 313, two years after the close of Diocletian's persecution, issued the Edict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions. The Edict was a pluralist policy, and throughout the Roman Empire of the fourth to sixth centuries, people shifted between a variety of religious groups in a kind of "religious marketplace".

Constantine supported and protected Christianity. He gave bishops judicial power and established equal footing for Christian clergy by granting them the same immunities polytheistic priests had long enjoyed. By intervening in church disputes, he initiated a precedent for ecclesiastical councils. Constantine was the first emperor to order the restoration of properties to the churches. Constantine devoted personal and public funds to building multiple churches, endowed his churches with wealth and lands, and provided revenue for their clergy and upkeep. There was a burst of church building under Constantine, and Christian art and literature blossomed. By the late fourth-century, there were churches in essentially all Roman cities.

Hostile and discriminatory imperial laws aimed at suppressing sacrifice and magic were written during this period. Blood sacrifice had been a central rite of virtually all religious groups in the pre-Christian Mediterranean, but it disappeared by the end of the fourth-century. This is "one of the most significant religious developments of late antiquity," writes Scott Bradbury, and "must be attributed to ...imperial and episcopal hostility".

Overt pagan-Christian religious conflict was once the dominant view of Late Antiquity. Twenty-first-century scholarship indicates that, while hostile actions did occur, violence was not a general phenomenon. There was no legislation forcing the conversion of pagans before the sixth-century. Paganism remained widespread into the early fifth-century, continuing in parts of the empire into the seventh-century, and into the ninth-century in Greece.

Constantine and his successors attempted to fit the Church into their political program. Church leaders resisted by making a case for a sphere of religious authority separate from state authority. Their objection forms the first clearly articulated limitation on the scope of a ruler's power.

For most of Late Antiquity, the papacy had limited influence. By the end of the era, the Pope's power and influence had increased as Patriarchs in the East frequently looked to the bishop of Rome to resolve disagreements for them.

Orthodoxy and heresy (325–)

Main articles: Heresy, Orthodoxy, and New Testament

See also: Christianity in the Roman Africa province and Schism

The Church of Late Antiquity was seen by its supporters as a universal church based on belief. Ancient authors used "correct belief" defined by apostolic tradition to identify all doctrinal variations and differing practices as heresy. The sheer number of laws directed at heresy indicate it was a much higher priority than paganism for Christians of this period.

Traditionally, scholars have seen Arianism as the great heresy of this period. Exactly what occurred has long been a matter of intense debate. Around 320, Arius wrote a letter to his bishop, Alexander, distinguishing three distinct "substances" of God with the Father alone not having a beginning which is contrary to traditional trinitarianism. Alexander responded by taking formal action against Arius.

Icon depicting the Emperor Constantine (centre) and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

The First Council of Nicaea was called by Constantine in 325 to resolve the controversy that resulted. They produced a statement of orthodoxy in the form of the Nicene Creed. The First Council of Constantinople called by Theodosius I in 381, affirmed it.

Ongoing theological controversies over Jesus' human and divine natures as either one (or two) separate (or unified) natures led to the Third (431), Fourth (451), Fifth (583) and Sixth ecumenical councils (680–681). Schisms broke out after the Council of Chalcedon (the Fourth Council) wrote the Chalcedonian Definition that two separate natures of Christ form one ontological entity. Pope Leo I (440–461) created some unity through his forceful response to the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon and his assertion of authority for the Pope.

By the fourth-century, the New Testament canon was settled, formalising Christian scripture. This process distinguished Christian texts from the Hebrew Scriptures, which became known as the Old Testament. However, despite cooperation among churches, differences began to emerge.

By Late Antiquity, the tendency for East and West to grow apart was already becoming evident. The Western church used Latin, while Eastern church leaders spoke and wrote in Greek, Syrian, and other languages. Theological differences were evident. In the Roman West, the church condemned Roman culture as sinful, tried to keep them separate, and struggled to resist State control (even though assimilation was still taking place). Eastern Christianity acclaimed harmony with Greek culture and upheld unanimity between church and state.

One particular bone of contention was Consantinople's claim of equal precedence with Rome. The East advocated Pentarchy, which would share the government of the church between the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and the Pope of Rome. First promoted through legislation of the emperor Justinian, and later confirmed by the Council in Trullo (692), the West opposed it, advocating instead for the papal supremacy of Rome.

Disagreement over the conclusions of the Council of Chalcedon led the Armenian, Assyrian, and Egyptian churches to withdraw from Catholicism and, instead, combine into what is today known as Oriental Orthodoxy one of three major branches of Eastern Christianity along with the Church of the East in Persia and Eastern Orthodoxy in Byzantium.

Augustine and the Jews (395–398)

{Main|Augustine of Hippo}}

Augustine of Hippo by Sandro Botticelli, c. 1480

Jews and Christians were both religious minorities, claiming the same inheritance, competing in a direct and sometimes violent clash. Augustine's ethic regarding the Jews rejected those who argued they should be killed or forcibly converted. Instead, he said Jews should be allowed to live in Christian societies and practice Judaism without interference because they preserved the teachings of the Old Testament and were "living witnesses" of the New. According to Anna Sapir Abulafia, scholars agree that "with the marked exception of Visigothic Spain in the seventh-century, Jews in Latin Christendom lived relatively peacefully with their Christian neighbors" until the 1200s.

Sometime before the fifth-century, the theology of supersessionism emerged, claiming that Christians had displaced the Jews as God's chosen people. Supersessionism was never official or universally held, but replacement theology has been part of Christian thought through much of history. Many attribute the emergence of antisemitism to this doctrine, while others make a distinction between supersessionism and modern antisemitism.

Ascetics and monasticism

Main article: Asceticism

See also: Christian monasticism before 451 and History of hospitals

In the Christian literature discussing sexuality from the second to the fifth centuries, there is tension between those who advocated for celibacy and those who advocated for marriage. Celibacy became mandatory for clerics in the Latin church, but not for Byzantines.

Christian monasticism was formerly thought to have begun as a fourth-century Egyptian phenomenon that spread to other regions. Twenty-first century scholarship asserts its origin was earlier in Syria where it emerged from the asceticism that had existed in Christianity from its beginning. Egyptian monasticism of the fourth and fifth centuries produced the texts and sayings, themes, and figures, that shaped much of modern understanding of monastics as "desert fathers". Palestine became a centre of pilgrimage and monastic communities were associated with the urban holy places. Monastics were in Cappadocia, Italy, Gaul and Roman North Africa. There were Greek and non-Greek communities in Jerusalem and Bethlehem.

Saint Basil the Great. Line engraving.

In 358, Basil the Great founded a monastic community in Caesarea that developed an unprecedented health care system. It allowed the sick to be cared for in a special building at the monastery by those dedicated to their care giving the sick benefits which destigmatized illness. This transformed health care, formed the first public hospital in 369, and became a model for public hospitals into the twentieth-century.

Theodosius I (379 to 395)

For centuries after his death, Emperor Theodosius I (379–395) was regarded as the champion of Christian orthodoxy who stamped out paganism. Theodosius's predecessors had all been semi-Arians, and recent scholarship tends to see the ancient Christian writers as affirming orthodoxy rather than writing actual history. Scholars agree that Theodosius gathered a large amount of legislation on religious subjects, continued the practices of his predecessors against sacrifices, magic and temples that allowed them, issued multiple decrees against heretics, but did not see himself as a destroyer of the old cults.

Under Theodosius' direction, laws from different governors and emperors going back to Constantine were collected into the Theodosian Law Code. Originally written to resolve issues of a particular place and time, these laws often contradicted each other. Theodosius had them gathered together, organized by theme, and reissued throughout the empire between 389 and 391.

Late Antique art and literature (c.350–500)

Main article: Late Antiquity § Sculpture and art

See also: Church Fathers

Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early Roman catacombs, fourth-century

In the fourth-century, Constantine's sponsorship produced an exuberant burst of Christian art and architecture. Christianity developed its first normative public architecture modeled after a type of audience hall, the basilica, used by municipal courts, which became the norm for all later types of Christian architecture. This led to an age of frescoes and mosaics. Statues and paintings blended classical and Christian in an "unsurpassed richness of images".

A hybrid form of poetry written in traditional classic forms with Latin style and Christian concepts emerged. The Christian innovation of mixing genrés and new methods of interpreting history began. The codex (the ancestor of modern books) was consistently used by Christians as early as the first-century. The church in Egypt had most likely invented the papyrus codex by the second-century.

Around the year 400, art reflects optimism among traditional polytheists. This is likely connected to the revival of classical styles, overseen by Theodosius. The Theodosian Age (the last twenty years of the fourth century and the first twenty years of the fifth) has been described as "the last renaissance of the Roman Empire".

In the late fourth century, Pope Damasus I commissioned Jerome to translate the Greek biblical texts into the Latin language used by the educated governing classes. Called the Vulgate, it uses many terms common to Roman jurisprudence.

In the fourth and fifth centuries, church fathers wrote hundreds of works from different traditions, cultural contexts, and languages (i.e. Greek, Latin, Syriac, Ethiopian, Armenian, Coptic) contributing to what is generally understood to be the "Golden Age of Patristic Christianity". Augustine of Hippo, John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Cyril of Alexandria, and Ambrose of Milan are among the many who made contributions to polemical works, orations, sermons, letters, poems, history, systematic theology, treatises on Christian doctrine, Biblical exegesis, scriptural commentary, and legal commentary.

Spread

See also: Christianity in late antiquity

See also: Early Germanic culture

Christianity grew rapidly and spread through the Empire into Western Europe and around the Mediterranean basin. In the fourth-century the Persian Empire had as high a percentage of Christians as the Roman Empire.

Climate change and economic factors drove the Huns out of inner Asia and across central Asia bringing pressure on the Persian Empire and both Eastern and Western Roman Empires. Ostrogoths migrated to Italy to escape them. Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 and eventually settled in Spain. Vandals crossed the Rhine and southern Gaul, moved into Spain and then Africa, playing a major role in the fifth-century. Many became Arian Christians.

Britain, Ireland and Scotland (397–597)

See also: Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England, Christianity in Ireland, and Christianisation of Scotland

Tradition says that, in 397, Saint Ninian first brought Christianity to the Picts in Scotland. The conversion of the Irish began in the early fifth-century through missionary activity and without coercion. Christianity had become an established minority faith in some parts of Britain in the second-century. In the fifth century, migration led Anglo-Saxon forms of Germanic paganism to largely displace Christianity in south-eastern Britain. The Gregorian mission in 597 led to the conversion of the first Anglo-Saxon king Æthelberht around 600. Irish missionaries went to Iona (563) and converted many Picts.

Asia

There is no consensus on the origins of Christianity beyond Byzantium in Asia or East Africa. Though it is scattered throughout these areas by the fourth-century, there is little documentation and no complete record. Asian and African Christians did not have access to structures of power, and their institutions developed without state support. Asian Christianity never developed the social, intellectual, and political power of Byzantium or the Latin West.

In an environment where the religious group was without cultural or political power, the merging of church and state is thought to represent ethnic identity. In 301, Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion. In the fourth century, Asia Minor, and Georgia forged national identities by adopting Christianity as their state religion, as did Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 314, King Urnayr of Albania adopted Christianity as the state religion.

Early Middle Ages (476–842)

Main article: Early Middle Ages

In the central part of this period between 600 and 750, (while Christianity still saw itself as universal), three distinct cultures emerged: in the West, Germanic Europe was beginning, and in the East, Byzantium and Islamic civilization were born.

Germanic Europe

In the last half of the fifth-century, cities in the Western Roman Empire were in decline, streets were no longer being built, and fortifications were decaying. The Germanic king Odoacer deposed the last Roman emperor of the Western Empire in Italy of 476. After 476, despite the fragmentation of the empire and the absence of an emperor, the wealthy and independent Roman Senate remained vigorous and influential, even with the barbarians, playing an increasing role in church politics through the end of the fifth-century.

In Gaul in 496, Clovis I converted to Catholicism, was baptized, and became king of the Franks. Widespread conversion turned Frankia into a Christian kingdom while much of Western Europe remained impoverished and politically fragmented. After 507, the Franks in Gaul were the dominant polity in the West.

The Franks effectively resisted Arabic inroads into southern France in 732. Charlemagne began the first Medieval Renaissance, the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural revival, in the 8th century. Renaissance continued through his descendants into the 9th century.

Christianity became dominant in England throughout the 7th century, during which suppression of Germanic paganism began. There are no recorded heathen kings after 954.

Papal power rises

Main article: Papal supremacy

painting by Jacopo Vignali – Saint Gregory the Great – from Walters museum collection

Popes led the sixth-century response to the invasion of northern Italy by the Lombards (569) producing an increase in papal autonomy and prestige. By the time Pope Gregory I succeeded to the papacy in 590, the claim of Rome's supremacy as stemming from Peter can be seen as established even though large sections of both the Western and Eastern churches remained unconvinced they should be submissive to the Roman See.

Papal power rose as competition within the church increasingly led people to Rome to resolve disagreements. The growing presence and involvement of the aristocracy in the papal bureaucracy, an increase in papal land-holdings from the second half of the sixth into the seventh-century, combined with changes in their administration that brought an increase in wealth, gradually shifted popes from being beneficiaries of patronage to becoming patrons themselves.

William IX, Duke of Aquitaine, and other powerful lay founders of monasteries, placed their institutions under the protection of the papacy in the tenth-century thereby facilitating another rise in papal power.

Justinian I, the end of the Senate and birth of Byzantium (527)

Main article: Byzantine Empire

In the Eastern Empire, culture blossomed during the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527–565). Justinian made donations to the church, established foundations, and watched over church property. He supported the rights of bishops, priests, abbots, and monastic life. In 563, after earthquakes destroyed it, Justinian rebuilt the Hagia Sophia using ten thousand workers and 40,000 pounds of silver, covering the dome in gold. He integrated Christian concepts with Roman law, creating the Code of Justinian. This code became an essential part of the Corpus Juris Civilis, which remains the basis of civil law in many modern states.

Justinian's religious policies reflected his conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith. He persecuted pagans and religious minorities and purged the governmental bureaucracy of those who disagreed with him. He regulated everything in religion and law, even interfering in papal elections. Manichaeism rose in southern Mesopotamia in the third-century and expanded from the fourth to sixth centuries in almost all parts of the Roman Empire, especially Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa and Italy. Severe persecution instigated by emperor Justinian ended them.

Between 535 and 554, Justinian fought the Gothic war, which failed to regain control of the Italian Peninsula. Surviving Roman senators, the pope, and the clergy of Rome looked forward to a period of reconstruction in the aftermath. Instead, in 554, Justinian asserted a Pragmatic Sanction that removed the Senate's support and effectively ended it as an institution. In 630, Pope Honorius I consecrated the Senate building Curia Julia as a church.

After the Age of Justinian (527–565) ended, the East was reduced in size, but it still had an emperor, its towns thrived, and taxes were still being collected. Its wealth, agriculture, sophisticated society, and theocracy allowed the Eastern Empire to become a Middle Eastern state, but it was war – with the Sassanids, the Slavs, and Islam – that forged it into the Byzantine Empire in the seventh-century.

The East and Islamic civilization

See also: History of Islam

In the early 600s, Christianity extended around the Mediterranean, across much of Europe into Spain and Britain, East to the edge of Central Asia as far as Zerang and Qandahar in modern Afghanistan, and into the Sassanian Persian Empire, with Christian churches concentrated in northern Iraq in the foothills of the Zagros, and in the trading posts of the Persian Gulf. A vibrant Asian Christianity with nineteen metropolitans (and eighty-five bishops), centred on Seleucia (just south of Baghdad), flourished in the eighth-century.

Two main kinds of Christian communities had formed in Syria, Egypt, Persia, and Armenia: urban churches which upheld the Council of Chalcedon, and Nestorian churches which came from the desert monasteries. Intense missionary activity between the fifth and eighth centuries led to eastern Iran, Arabia, central Asia, parts of China, and the coasts of India and Indonesia adopting Nestorian Christianity. The rural areas of Upper Egypt were all Nestorian. Coptic missionaries spread the Nestorian faith up the Nile to Nubia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia.

Born in the seventh century, Islamic civilization, in a series of Arabic military campaigns between 632 and 750, and diplomacy, conquered much of Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, North Africa, and Spain. By 635, upper-class Christian refugees had moved further east to China at Hsian-fu. Inferior legal status and persecution of non-Muslims eventually devastated the Chalcedonian churches in the cities. The monastic background of the Nestorians made their churches more remote, making them the most able to survive and cultivate new traditions.

Christendom

Main article: Christendom

In this age, a great deal of diversity existed, yet the concept of Christendom was also pervasive and unifying. Medieval writers and ordinary folk used the term to identify themselves, their religious culture, and even their civilization. Mixed within and at the edges of this largely Christian world, barbarian invasion, deportation, and neglect also produced large "unchurched" populations. In these areas, Christianity was often one religion among many and could combine with aspects of local paganism. Early medieval religious culture included "worldliness and devotion, prayer and superstition", but its inner dynamic sprang from belief in universal Christendom.

Education

A nineteenth century depiction of a Passion play

The means and methods of teaching a mostly illiterate populace included mystery plays (which had developed out of the mass), wall paintings, vernacular sermons and treatises, and saints' lives in epic form. Christian motifs could function in non-Christian ways, while practices of non-Christian origin became endowed with Christian meaning. From the sixth to the eighth centuries, most schools were monastery-based.

Law

Main article: Law

See also: Canon law

Throughout this period, a symbiotic relationship existed between ecclesiastical institutions and civil governments. Canon law and secular law were connected and often overlapped. Canon laws, created by councils, kings, bishops, and lay assemblies, enabled the church to sustain itself as an institution and wield social authority with the laity. In the East, Roman law remained the standard. The West was a world of relatively weak states, endowed aristocracies, and peasant communities that could no longer use law from a past empire to support the church. Instead, the Western church adopted a feudalistic oath of loyalty which became a condition of consecration.

The oath of loyalty between men and their king created a new model of consecrated kingship. Janet Nelson writes that:

This rite has a continuous history in both Anglo-Saxon England and Francia from the eighth-century onward, with further refinements in the ninth and tenth. It is, among other things, a remarkable application of law by early medieval churchmen in the West, to which the East offers no parallel.

Monasticism

Main article: Christian monasticism

During the sixth-century, monasticism flourished nearly everywhere Christianity existed. It developed somewhat differently in each region and by 600 there was great diversity even though monasteries shared basic elements. Monastics followed a discipline of devotional practices aimed at cultivating an awareness of God which generally included formalized prayer, memorization of scripture, celibacy, fasting, manual labor, and almsgiving.

Monasteries became more and more organized from 600 to 1100. The formation of these organized bodies of believers gradually carved out social spaces with authority separate from political and familial authority, thereby revolutionizing social history. Medical practice was highly important, and medieval monasteries are best known for their contributions to medical care.

Art

Main articles: Byzantine Iconoclasm and Illuminated manuscript

See also: Insular art

A page from the Book of Hours (Use of Metz) with a decorated Initial

Dedicated monks merged Germanic, Celtic, and classical traditions to create "illuminated" psalters, collections of the Psalms, the gospels, and copies of the Bible. First, using geometric designs, foliage, mythical animals, and biblical characters, the illustrations became more realistic in the Carolingian Renaissance.

In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, destroying much of early art history. The West condemned Leo's iconoclasm. By the tenth and early eleventh centuries, Byzantine culture began to recover.

High Middle Ages (842–1299)

Main article: High Middle Ages

The Middle Ages saw momentous changes in the economic and political structures of Europe and the birth of institutions that became fundamental to Christianity.

Christendom 842–1099

Painted panel 4: The Apostle's Creed

Membership in Christendom began with baptism at birth. Members were required to have a rudimentary knowledge of the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer. From peasant to pope, all were required to rest on Sunday and feast days, attend mass, fast at specified times, take communion at Easter, pay various fees, tithes, and alms for the needy, and receive last rites at death.

After 1054, the term Christendom did not include the Eastern churches. The Byzantine East and the Catholic West had long had many irreconcilable differences. Along with a general lack of charity and respect on both sides, there were also many cultural and linguistic differences, geographical separation, and geopolitical disagreements. In 1054, this produced the East–West Schism, also known as the "Great Schism", which separated the Church into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.

Reform

The spread of Cistercians from their original sites in Western-Central Europe during the Middle Ages

In the early part of this era, Viking raids and civil disorder destroyed many churches and monasteries, inadvertently leading to reform and improvement. Patrons competed against each other in rebuilding, adding to, and improving replacements so that "by the mid-eleventh century, a wealthy, unified, better-organized, better-educated, more spiritually sensitive Latin Church" resulted.

Gregorian Reform (1050–1080) increased papal power, centralized church authority, and reinforced clerical celibacy. Under Hugh of Cluny (1049–1109), the Abbey of Cluny became the leading centre of reform in Western monasticism from the eleventh into the early twelfth-century. The Cistercian movement, a second wave of reform after 1098, also became a primary force of technological advancement and its spread in medieval Europe contributing to economic growth.

Beginning in the twelfth-century, Mendicant orders (Franciscans and Dominicans) embraced a reformation in understanding a monk's calling as a charge to go out and actively reform the world. The papacy recruited and licensed this new type of charismatic preacher whose audience was no longer the people of a parish or a city, but whole regions.

Investiture controversy (1078) and rising Papal power

Main article: Investiture Controversy

1882 depiction of Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV at the gate of Canossa Castle during the Investiture controversy

The Investiture controversy, which began in the Holy Roman Empire in 1078, was specifically a conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) over who had the right to invest a bishop or abbot into a paying job. More generally, it was over control of the church and its revenues.

Bishoprics were lifetime appointments, so a king could better control their powers and revenues than those of hereditary noblemen. He could place an aspirant of his choice, or leave the post vacant and collect the revenues himself, (theoretically in trust for a future bishop), or he could give a bishopric to compensate a helpful noble. For the church, ending this would better separate church from state, help with reform, and provide better pastoral care. For the civil authorities, ending lay investiture meant the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the European nobility would be reduced.

Gregory recorded a series of statements asserting that the church must be the higher of the two powers of church and state and that the church must no longer be treated as a servant to the state. Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy. The Dictatus Papae of 1075 declared the pope alone could invest bishops. Henry IV rejected the decree. This led to his excommunication, which contributed to a ducal revolt, that led to a civil war: the Great Saxon Revolt. Eventually, Henry received absolution. The conflict lasted five decades. A similar controversy occurred in England.

Toledo 1085

Main article: Reconquista

King Alfonso VI of León and Castile captured Toledo in 1085. It was a major victory in the Christian overthrow of Islam in Spain, but the Almoravids prevented it from going further at that time.

First crusade (1095)

Main article: First Crusade

The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Crusader states with their strongholds in the Holy Land at their height, between the First and the Second Crusade (1135)

In 1081 Alexios I Komnenos asked Pope Urban for help with the Seljuk Turks. Urban responded (1095) with an appeal to European Christians to "go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land". Urban's message had tremendous popular appeal, and there was much enthusiasm supporting it. It was new and novel and tapped into powerful aspects of folk religion. Voluntary poverty and its renunciation of self-will, along with a longing for the genuine "apostolic life", flourished in the late eleventh and twelfth centuries connecting pilgrimage, charity, remission of sins, and a willingness to fight.

Crusading involved the church in certain paradoxes: Gregorian reform was grounded in distancing spirituality from the secular and the political, while crusade made the church dependent upon financing from aristocrats and kings for the most political of all activities: war.

Crusades led to the development of national identities in European nations, increased division with the East, and produced cultural change. Hotly debated by historians, the single most important contribution of the Crusades to Christian history was, possibly, the invention of the indulgence.

Law and Papal monarchy (1099–1299)

The medieval papacy gained authority in every domain of life. Under Pope Gregory VII, the scope of canon law was extended, and the church became a more imposing institution, consolidating its territory and establishing a bureaucracy. State administrations were also centralizing and developing bureaucracies. Competition (and emulation) between them developed into a battlefield of ideas and personalities as both church and state claimed legal jurisdiction and the right to collect taxes from the same people.

Canon law became a large and highly complex system of laws that omitted Christianity's earlier principles of inclusivity.

Popes from 1159 to 1303 were predominantly lawyers, not theologians. New networks and new agencies were often manifested as legal services, and over it all watched an increasingly centralized and proactive church government. The papacy's power and influence gradually came to resemble that of the monarchs of its day.

Medieval Inquisition (1184, 1230)

Main article: Inquisition

Throughout Christian Europe, church and civic rulers made efforts to support coherence and order. Moral misbehavior and heresy, by the folk and clerics, were prosecuted by inquisitorial courts that were composed of both church and civil authorities. Bishops were in charge.

The Medieval Inquisition includes the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230) and the Papal Inquisition (1230s–1240s), though these courts had no actual joint leadership or organization. Created as needed, they were not permanent institutions but were limited to specific times and places.

Medieval inquisitors did not possess absolute power, nor were they universally supported. Riots and public opposition formed as inquisition became stridently contested both in and outside the Church.

Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229)

Main article: Albigensian Crusade

In 1209, Pope Innocent III and the King of France, Philip Augustus, began a military campaign to eliminate the Albigensian heresy known as Catharism. Once begun, the campaign quickly took a political turn. The king's army seized and occupied strategic lands of nobles who had not supported the heretics, but had been in the good graces of the Church. Throughout the campaign, Innocent vacillated, sometimes taking the side favouring crusade, then siding against it and calling for its end. It did not end until 1229 when the region was brought under the rule of the French king, creating southern France, while Catharism continued for another hundred years (until 1350).

Learning

Traditionally, schools had been attached to monasteries, though Cathedral schools were established in the early Middle Ages, and independent schools arose in some of the larger cities. For most folk, learning began at home, then continued in the parish where they had been born and were associated with for the rest of their lives. The clergy, and the laity, became "more literate, more worldly, and more self-assertive" and they did not always agree with the hierarchy.

Scholasticism, Renaissance and science (1150–1200)

Main articles: Scholasticism and Renaissance of the 12th century

See also: History of science

Studying astronomy and geometry. Early fifteenth-century painting, France.

Between 1150 and 1200, intrepid monks traveled to formerly Muslim locations in Sicily and Spain. Fleeing Muslims had abandoned their libraries, and among the treasure trove of books, the searchers found the works of Aristotle, Euclid and more. Adapting Aristotelian logical reasoning and Christian faith created a revolution in thinking called scholasticism which elevated reason and reconciled it with faith. This led to a twelfth-century renaissance which included the revival of the scientific study of natural phenomena. Historians of science see this as the beginning of what led to modern science and the scientific revolution in the West.

Universities

Main article: Medieval university

From the 1100s, Western universities, the first institutions of higher education since the sixth-century, were formed as self-governing corporations chartered by popes and kings. Bologna, Oxford and Paris were among the earliest (c. 1150). Divided into faculties which specialized in law, medicine, theology or liberal arts, each held quodlibeta (free-for-all) theological debates amongst faculty and students and awarded degrees. Canon and civil law began to be professionalized.

Art, architecture and music

Main article: Medieval art

Fig 44 Flying Buttress of the Nave of Amiens

This was a period of enormous creativity characterised by an imposing public Christian art full of light, colour, and rhythm. Romanesque style using Roman features with Christian influences, emerged in Europe between 1000 and 1200 as an aspect of the monastic revivals, especially the Cluniacs. It was used primarily in architecture but also produced statuary, paintings, and illustrated manuscripts.

Between 1137 and 1144 the Gothic style, with ribbed vaults and flying buttresses, such as those found in Notre Dame and the cathedral at Amiens, was invented.

The monk Guido of Arezzo modernized musical notation, invented the music staff of lines and spaces, and began the naming of musical notes making modern music possible.

Spread and retraction of Christianity

Mesopotamia and Egypt

Hagia Sophia was the religious and spiritual centre of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years. The Hagia Sophia and the Parthenon were converted into mosques. Violent persecutions of Christians were common and reached their climax in the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek genocides.

By the end of the eleventh-century, Christianity was in full retreat in Mesopotamia and inner Iran. Some Christian communities further to the east continued to exist.

The Christian churches in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq became subject to fervently Muslim militaristic regimes. Christians were dhimma. This cultural status guaranteed Christian's rights of protection but discriminated against them through legal inferiority. Various Christian communities adopted different strategies for preserving their identity while accommodating their rulers. Some withdrew from interaction, others converted, while some sought outside help.

Scandinavia

Christianization of Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, and Denmark) occurred in two stages. In the first stage, missionaries arrived on their own, without secular support, in the ninth-century. Next, a secular ruler would take charge of Christianization in their territory. This stage ended once a defined and organized ecclesiastical network was established. By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.

Northern crusades (1147–1316)

Main article: Northern Crusades

Baltic Tribes c 1200

When the Second Crusade was called after Edessa fell, the nobles in Eastern Europe refused to go. The Balts, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, had been raiding surrounding countries for several centuries, and subduing them was what mattered most to the Eastern-European nobles. In 1147, Eugenius' Divina dispensatione gave eastern nobility indulgences for the first of the Baltic wars (1147–1316). The Northern Crusades followed intermittently, with and without papal support, from 1147 to 1316. Priests and clerics developed a pragmatic acceptance of the forced conversions perpetrated by the nobles, despite the continued theological emphasis on voluntary conversion.

The East

In the twelfth-century, Byzantium was weakened from repeated invasion, and its territorial frontiers became nebulous, but economically and spiritually, the core of the Byzantine Empire was never more prosperous. Three powerful groups – Seljuk Turks from the east, Almoravids from West Africa, and Crusaders from Europe – began to change the politics, culture, and religious configurations of Byzantium, Islamic civilization, and the European West.

Russia

Main articles: Russia and Kievan Rus

The Baptism of Kievans, by Klavdiy Lebedev

Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv

From the 950s to the 980s, polytheism among the Kievan Rus declined, while many social and economic changes fostered the spread of the new religious ideology known as Christianity. The event associated with the conversion of the Rus' has traditionally been the baptism of Vladimir of Kiev in 989.

The new Christian religious structure was imposed by the state's rulers. The Rus' dukes maintained control of the church which was financially dependent upon them. While monasticism was the dominant form of piety, Christianity permeated daily life, for both peasants and elites, who identified themselves as Christian while keeping many pre-Christian practices.

Eastern Europe

Main article: Eastern Europe

St. Cyril and St. Methodius monument on Mt. Radhošť

Beginning under emperor Basil I (r. 867–886), Byzantine Christianity was instrumental in forming what would become Eastern Europe. Serbia, Alania (modern Iran), Russia and Armenia were nascent Christian states by the early eleventh-century. Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary and Croatia soon followed.

Saints Cyril and Methodius translated the Bible, developing the first Slavic written script and the Cyrillic alphabet in the process. This became the educational foundation for all Slavic nations and influenced the spiritual, religious, literary, and cultural development of the entire region for generations.

Persecution of Jews 1239-

Main article: Medieval antisemitism

A turning point in Jewish-Christian relations took place in June 1239 when the Talmud was put "on trial" by Gregory IX (1237–1241) in a French court over contents that mocked the central figures of Christianity. This resulted in Talmudic Judaism being seen as so different from biblical Judaism that old Augustinian obligations to leave the Jews alone no longer applied. As townfolk gained a measure of political power, they became one of Jewry's greatest enemies, charging Jews with blood libel, deicide, ritual murder, poisoning wells and causing the plague, and various other crimes. Although subordinate to religious, economic, and social themes, racial concepts also reinforced hostility.

Jews had often acted as financial agents for the lords providing them loans with interest while being exempt from taxes and other financial laws themselves. This attracted jealousy and resentment. Emicho of Leiningen massacred Jews in Germany in search of supplies, loot, and protection money. The York massacre of 1190 also appears to have had its origins in a conspiracy by local leaders to liquidate their debts along with their creditors.

Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance (c. 1300–1520)

Main articles: Late Middle Ages and Renaissance

Anti-clerical revolution

The many calamities of the "long fourteenth-century" – plague, famine, multiple wars, social unrest, urban riots, peasant revolts, and renegade feudal armies – led folk to believe the end of the world prophesied in the New Testament book of Revelation was imminent. This belief ran throughout society and became intertwined with anticlerical and anti-papal sentiments. While there is scholarly disagreement over using "anticlericalism" to describe the pre-Reformation Middle Ages, it is generally used by scholars. Defined simply as medieval criticism of the clergy, anticlericalism in the Middle Ages ranges from criticism of individual clergy to criticism of the entire church.

Clergy were privileged. They had secular and economic power and lay people depended on them to administer the sacraments. The combination of privilege and dependence caused resentment. The ideal of how clergy should be and claims of deviations (which might include simony, gluttony, sexual immorality, and violence) were prominent in all the anticlerical movements.

Anticlerical sentiment, by lay people and clerics, appeared in heretical movements, internal reform movements, and popular writings, both secular and religious. A serious decline in faith in the clergy by the end of the 15th century identifies this era as a period of "anticlerical revolution". This anticlericalism was an integral part of medieval life.

Criticism and reform (1300–1500)

Throughout the Late Middle Ages, the church faced powerful challenges and vigorous political confrontations. Clerics voiced many of the criticisms made between 1100 and 1520 condemning abuses, and seeking a more spiritual, less worldly clergy. However, there is a constancy of complaint in the historical record that indicates most attempts at reform between 1300 and 1500 failed.

John Wycliffe (1320–1384), an English scholastic philosopher and theologian, attended the Council of Constance (1414–1418) and urged the Church to give up its property (which produced much of the Church's wealth), to once again embrace poverty and simplicity, to stop being subservient to the state and its politics, and to deny papal authority. He was accused of heresy, convicted, and sentenced to death, but died before implementation.

Jan Hus (1369–1415), an evangelical Czech based in Prague, was influenced by Wycliffe and spoke out against what he saw as abuses and corruption in the Catholic Church. He was also accused of heresy and condemned to death. Hus became a powerful symbol of Czech nationalism and the impetus for the Bohemian (aka the Czech) Reformation.

During the Late Middle Ages, groups of laymen and non-ordained secular clerics sought a more sincere spiritual life. A vernacular religious culture for the laity arose. The new devotion worked toward the ideal of a pious society of ordinary non-ordained people.

Avignon, Papal decline and the Western Schism (1309–1417)

Main articles: Avignon Papacy and Western Schism

17th century depiction of Pope John XXII (1316–1334) (by Giuseppe Franchi) who was referred to as "the banker of Avignon"

In 1309, Pope Clement V moved to Avignon in southern France in search of relief from Rome's factional politics. The Avignon Papacy consisted of seven popes whose residence there produced unintended consequences for the papacy. The move away from the "seat of Peter" caused great indignation throughout the church and cost popes prestige and power. Papal power stopped rising.

Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377. After Gregory's death, the papal conclave met in 1378, in Rome, and elected an Italian Urban VI to succeed Gregory. The French cardinals did not approve, so they held a second conclave electing Robert of Geneva instead, giving the church two popes. This began the Western Schism.

For the next thirty years the Church had two popes, then in 1409, the Pisan council called for the resignation of both popes, electing a third to replace them. Both Popes refused to resign, leaving the Church with three popes. Five years later, Sigismund the Holy Roman Emperor (1368–1437) pressed Pope John XXIII to call the Council of Constance and depose all three popes. In 1417, the council elected Pope Martin V in their place.

Art and literature (c. 1400–1600)

Main article: Renaissance art

Michelangelo's Pietà (1498–1499) in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

During the European Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, the Church was a leading patron of art and architecture, directly commissioning many individual works and supporting many artists such as Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Fra Angelico, Donatello, and Leonardo da Vinci.

Scholars revealed the Donation of Constantine as a forgery.

Literature was impacted by Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), an outstanding figure of Christian humanism in the sixteenth century. Intended to reform the church, humanists taught a simplified faith accessible to any Christian who could pray directly to God for themselves.

The cult of chivalry evolved in the early 13th century and lasted into the 15th century becoming a true cultural force that influenced art, literature, and philosophy.

Byzantium and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453

Main article: Fall of Constantinople

In 1439, a reunion agreement between the Eastern and Western churches was made. However, there was popular resistance in the East, so it wasn't until 1452 that the decree of union was officially published in Constantinople. It was overthrown the very next year by the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Compulsory resettlement returned many Greek Orthodox to Constantinople. While Islamic law did not recognize the Patriarch as a "juristic person", nor acknowledge the Orthodox Church as an institution, it did identify the Orthodox Church with the Greek community, and concern for stability allowed it to exist. The monastery at Mt. Athos prospered from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. Ottomans were largely tolerant, and wealthy Byzantines who entered monastic life there were allowed to keep some control over their property until 1568.

Leaders of the church were recognized by the Islamic state as administrative agents charged with supervising its Christian subjects and collecting their taxes. Compulsory taxes, higher and higher payments to the sultan in hopes of receiving his appointment to the Patriarchate, and other financial gifts, corrupted the process and impoverished Christians. Conversion became an attractive solution.

Modern Inquisition (1478–20th century)

Main articles: Roman Inquisition, Spanish Inquisition, and Portuguese Inquisition

Between 1478 and 1542, the modern Roman, Spanish, and Portuguese inquisitions were created with a much broader reach than previous inquisitions.

Until its end in 1834, the Spanish Inquisition was responsible to the crown and was used to consolidate state interests. Authorized by Pope Sixtus IV in 1478, it was begun in answer to Ferdinand and Isabella's stated fears that Jewish converts were conspiring with Muslims to sabotage the new state. At the start, inquisition was so severe that the Pope attempted to shut it down. King Ferdinand is said to have threatened the Pope to prevent that. Five years after its inception, in October 1483, a papal bull conceded control of the Spanish Inquisition to the Spanish crown making it the first national, unified, centralized institution of the nascent Spanish state.

The Portuguese Inquisition was controlled by a state-level board of directors sponsored by the king, who, during this period, was generally more concerned with ethnicity than religion. According to Giuseppe Marcocci, there is a connection between the Portuguese Inquisition's growth and blood purity statutes. Anti-Judaism became part of the Inquisition in Portugal before the end of the fifteenth-century and forced conversion led many Jewish converts to Portuguese colonies in India, where they suffered as targets of the Goa Inquisition.

The Roman Inquisition operated to serve the papacy's long-standing political aims in Italy. The Roman Inquisition was bureaucratic, intellectual, and academic. It is probably best known for its condemnation of Galileo.

Expulsion of Jews (circa 1200s–1500s)

Main article: Expulsions and exoduses of Jews

See also: Edict of Expulsion

Expulsion judios-en

While the medieval Catholic church never advocated the full expulsion of Jews from Christendom, nor did the Church repudiate Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness, canon law supported discrimination as defining Jews as heretics became increasingly common during the 15th century. Local rulers repeatedly evicted Jews from their lands and confiscated Jewish property. In 1283, the Archbishop of Canterbury spearheaded a petition demanding restitution of usury and urging the Jewish expulsion in 1290.

Frankfurt's Jews flourished between 1453 and 1613 despite harsh discrimination. They were restricted to one street and were subject to strict rules if they wished to leave this territory, but within their community, they were allowed to maintain some self-governance. They had their own laws, leaders, and a well-known Rabbinical school that also functioned as a religious and cultural centre.

Women (1100–1500)

Main article: Women in the Middle Ages

In the medical, theological, and legal views of the day, it was commonly held that women were incapable of the thought needed to make moral judgments and were too weak to exercise authority. Hierarchy between the genders was seen as necessary for society. Women had no access to education within the institutions associated with the church (i.e., cathedral schools and most universities).

Where clergy was concerned, the boundary between men and women was absolute, however, there were women who became distinguished leaders of nunneries, exercising the same powers and privileges as their male counterparts. For example, Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179), Elisabeth of Schönau (d. 1164/65), and Marie d'Oignies (d. 1213) had full autonomy over the spiritual and temporal aspects of their houses.

Among those considered to be heretics, roles for men and women varied, but the church often used the participation of women as an additional factor in demonizing a heretical movement.

Early modernity (1500–1750)

Main article: Early modern period

In 1517, Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his Ninety-five Theses.

Protestant Reformation

Main article: Reformation

Powerful and pervasive ecclesiastical reform developed from medieval critiques of the church, but the institutional unity of the church shattered. Though there was no actual schism until 1521, the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648) has been described (since the nineteenth-century) as beginning when Martin Luther, a Catholic monk advocating church reform, nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the church door in Wittenberg in 1517.

Luther's theses challenged the church's selling of indulgences, the authority of the Pope, and various teachings of the late medieval Catholic church. This act of defiance and its social, moral, and theological criticisms brought Western Christianity to a new understanding of salvation, tradition, the individual, and personal experience in relationship with God. Edicts handed down by the Diet of Worms condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas.

The three primary traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed, and the Anglican traditions. At the same time, a collection of loosely related groups that included Anabaptists, Spiritualists, and Evangelical Rationalists, began the Radical Reformation in Germany and Switzerland. Beginning in 1519, Huldrych Zwingli spread these teachings in Switzerland leading to the Swiss Reformation.

Counter-Reformation

Main article: Counter-Reformation

The 1564 edition of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum listed books forbidden by the Catholic Church.

The Roman Catholic Church responded to the Protestant challenge in what is called the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation, spearheaded by a series of 10 reforming popes from 1534 to 1605, beginning with Pope Paul III (1534–1549). The Council of Trent (1545–1563) denied each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of Roman Catholic policies up to the twenty-first-century. A list of books detrimental to faith or morals was established, the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, which included the writings of Protestants and those condemned as obscene.

New monastic orders were formed within the church, including the Society of Jesus – also known as the "Jesuits" – who adopted military discipline and a vow of loyalty to the Pope, leading them to be called "the shock troops of the papacy". They soon became the Church's chief weapon against Protestantism. Monastic reform also led to developments within orthodox spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. The Counter-Reformation also created the Uniate church which used Eastern liturgy but recognized Rome.

Internecine wars

Main article: European wars of religion

Religion became entangled with local politics. Quarreling royal houses, already involved in dynastic disagreements, became polarized into the two religious camps. Warfare initially broke out in the Holy Roman Empire with the minor Knights' War in 1522, then intensified in the First Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547) and the Second Schmalkaldic War (1552–1555). In 1562, France became the centre of religious warfare. The largest and most disastrous of these wars was the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).

Theorists such as John Kelsay and James Turner Johnson argue that these wars were varieties of the just war tradition for liberty and freedom. William T. Cavanaugh identifies a view shared by many historians that the wars were not primarily religious, but were more about state-building, nationalism, and economics. Historian Barbara Diefendorf argues that religious motives were always mixed with other motives, but the simple fact of Catholics fighting Catholics and Protestants fighting Protestants is not sufficient to prove the absence of religious motives. According to Marxist theorist Henry Heller, there was "a rising tide of commoner hostility to noble oppression and growing perception of collusion between Protestant and Catholic nobles".

Witch trials

See also: Witch trials in the early modern period

Until the 1300s, the official position of the Roman Catholic Church was that witches did not exist. While historians have been unable to pinpoint a single cause of what became known as the "witch frenzy", scholars have noted that, without changing church doctrine, a new but common stream of thought developed at every level of society that witches were both real and malevolent. Records show the belief in magic had remained so widespread among the rural people, that it has convinced some historians that Christianization had not been as successful as previously supposed. The main pressure to prosecute witches came from the common people, and trials were mostly civil trials. There is broad agreement that approximately 100,000 people were prosecuted, of which 80% were women, and that 40,000 to 50,000 people were executed between 1561 and 1670.

Eastern Orthodox Churches

Main article: Eastern Orthodoxy

The conquest of 1453 effectively destroyed the Eastern Orthodox Church as an institution of the Christian empire as inaugurated by Constantine, sealing off Greek-speaking Orthodoxy from the West for almost a century and a half. The church was without one of its leaders, the Emperor, though it retained a patriarch in a lesser and more limited capacity. The Seljuq sultans and the Ottoman sultans were relatively tolerant, and this allowed the spiritual and cultural influence of the Eastern church, Constantinople, and Mount Athos to continue in slightly altered form among Orthodox nations. By the time of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566), the patriarchate had become a part of the Ottoman system, and continued to influence the Orthodox world.

Jeremias II (1536–1595) dominated Eastern Christianity in the second half of the sixteenth century keeping Constantinople conservative and suspicious of Rome. Jeremias established contact with the new Protestant Lutherans, but nothing much resulted beyond Western Europeans becoming a little more aware of the problems of the church in captivity. Jeremias was the first Eastern patriarch to visit north-eastern Europe. Ending his visit in Moscow, he founded the Orthodox Patriarchate of Russia.

A generation after Constantinople fell to the Turks Ivan III of Muscovy adopted the style of the ancient Byzantine imperial court. This gained Ivan support among the late fifteenth and early sixteenth-century Rus' elite who saw themselves as the New Israel and Moscow as the new Jerusalem. The Church reform of Peter I in the early eighteenth-century placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the tsar. An ober-procurator appointed by the tsar ran the committee that governed the Church after 1721 until 1918: the Most Holy Synod. The Church became involved in the various campaigns of russification and contributed to antisemitism.

Age of Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries)

Main article: Age of Enlightenment

The era of absolutist states followed the breakdown of Christian universalism. Abuses from political absolutism practised by kings supported by Catholicism gave rise to a virulent anti-clerical, anti-Catholic, and anti-Christian sentiment that emerged in the 1680s. Critique of Christianity began among the more extreme Protestant reformers enraged by fear, tyranny, and persecution. Secularisation spread at every level of European society.

Modern concepts of tolerance

Main article: History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance

Beginning in the 1400s, Protestants steadfastly sought religious toleration for everyone, including heretics, blasphemers, Catholics, non-Christians, and atheists. Over the next centuries, Anglicans and other Christian moderates also wrote and argued for toleration. In the 1690s, many secular thinkers rethought, on a political level, all of the State's reasons for persecution. They also began advocating for religious toleration. Concepts of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of thought gradually became established.

Baroque art

Main article: Baroque

St. Peter's Basilica

In the early seventeenth-century, Baroque art, characterized by grandeur and opulence, offered the Catholic Church and secular rulers a means of expressing their magnificence and political power. This was a period of turmoil, discovery, and change, and Baroque art reflected the search for stability and order. It originated in Rome and became an international style. The church of St. Peter in Rome, St. Paul's cathedral in London, and the gardens at Versailles are probably the age's premiere examples.

Colonialism and missions

Main article: Christianity and colonialism

Colonialism, driven by economics and politics, also opened the door for Christian missions in many new regions. According to Sheridan Gilley "Catholic Christianity became a global religion through the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires in the sixteenth-century and French missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth."

However, Christian missionaries and colonial empires had separate agendas that were often in direct opposition to each other. Most missionaries avoided politics, yet over the last 500 years of missions, many vocal missionaries challenged colonial oppression, defended human rights, and opposed their own governments in matters of social justice. On the other hand, there are an equal number of examples of missionaries cooperating with colonial governments.

16th century Asia

See also: History of the Catholic Church in Japan, Christianity in China, Christianity in Korea, and Christianity in Vietnam

The sixteenth-century success of Christianity in Japan was followed by one of the greatest persecutions in Christian history. Sixteenth-century missions to China were undertaken primarily by the Jesuits. Sheridan Gilley writes that "The cruel martyrdom of Catholics in China, Indochina, Japan and Korea, another heroic missionary country, was connected to local fears of European invasion and conquest, which in some cases were not unjustified."

Late modernity (1750–1945)

Main article: Late modernity

Historical setting

Historians often refer to the period from 1760 to 1830 as a "historical watershed" because it embraces the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution.

In many cases, throughout this period, Christianity was weakened by social and political change. By the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries, the influence of anticlerical socialism and communism produced secession and disruption in many locations.

Biblical criticism, liberalism, and fundamentalism (1650–1800)

Main articles: Biblical criticism, Liberal Christianity, and Fundamentalism

After the Scientific Revolution (1600–1750), an upsurge in skepticism subjected all aspects of Western culture, including religious belief, to systematic doubt. Biblical criticism emerged (c. 1650 – c. 1800), pioneered by Protestants, using historicism and human reason to make the study of the Bible more scholarly, secular, and democratic. Depending upon how radical the individual scholar was, this produced different and often conflicting views, but it posed particular problems for the literal Bible interpretation which had emerged in the 1820s.

Before the Enlightenment of the eighteenth-century, liberalism was synonymous with Christian Idealism in that it imagined a liberal State that embraced political and cultural tolerance and freedom. Later, liberalism embraced seventeenth-century rationalism, which was attempting to "wean" Christianity from its "irrational cultic" roots. This liberalism lost touch with the necessity of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity, which led to liberalism's decline and the birth of fundamentalism.

Fundamentalist Christianity arose in the late nineteenth and early twentieth-century as a reaction against modern rationalism. The Roman Catholic Church became increasingly centralized, conservative, and focused on loyalty to the Pope. Early in the twentieth-century, the Pope required Catholic Bible scholars who used biblical criticism to take an anti-modernist oath.

In the same period (1925), supporters of a relatively new, loosely organized, and undisciplined Protestant fundamentalism participated in the Scopes trial. By 1930, the movement appeared to be dying. Later in the 1930s, Neo-orthodoxy, a theology against liberalism with a reevaluation of Reformation teachings, began uniting moderates of both sides. In the 1940s, "new-evangelicalism" established itself as separate from fundamentalism.

The Great Awakening (1730)

Main article: First Great Awakening

Great revivalists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Religious revival, known as the First Great Awakening, swept through the American colonies between the 1730s and the 1770s. Verbal battles over the movement raged at both the congregational and denominational levels creating divisions which became 'Parties', which turned political and eventually led to critical support for the American Revolution.

In places like Connecticut and Massachusetts, where one denomination received state funding, churches now began to lobby local legislatures to end that inequity. In 1791, the United States became the first predominantly Christian nation to mandate the separation of church and state. Theological pluralism became the new norm.

Urban development (1760)

Scholars have identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism and human capital formation, the Protestant work ethic, economic development, and the development of the state system. Max Weber says Protestantism contributed to the development of banking across Northern Europe and gave birth to Capitalism. However, the urbanization and industrialization that went hand in hand with capitalism created a plethora of new social problems. In Europe and North America, both Protestants and Catholics provided massive aid to the poor, supporting family welfare, medicine, and education.

De-Christianization (1794)

Main article: Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

France also experienced revolution, and by 1794, radical revolutionaries attempted to violently 'de-Christianize' France in what some scholars have termed a "deliberate genocidal policy of extermination" of Catholics in the Vendée region. When Napoleon came to power, he acknowledged Catholicism as the majority view and tried to make it dependent upon the state. For Eastern Orthodox church leaders, the French Revolution meant Enlightenment ideas were too dangerous to embrace.

The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s)

Main article: Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s) extolled moral reform as the Christian alternative to armed revolution. These reformers established nationwide societies, separate from any individual church, to begin social movements concerning abolition, women's rights, temperance and literacy. Developing nationwide organizations was pioneering, and many businesses adopted the practice leading to the consolidations and mergers that reshaped the American economy of the nineteenth-century. The second awakening produced the Latter Day Saint movement, the Restoration Movement and the Holiness movement.

Third Awakening (1857)

Main article: Third Great Awakening

The Third Great Awakening began in 1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English-speaking countries. Restorationists were prevalent in America. They have not described themselves as a reform movement but have, instead, described themselves as restoring the Church to its original form as found in the book of Acts. Restorationism gave rise to the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, Adventism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses.

Western slavery (1865)

Main article: Atlantic slave trade

American anti-slavery tract, 1853

For over 300 years, many Christians in Europe and North America participated in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which had begun in the sixteenth-century. Moral objections had arisen immediately but had little impact. By the eighteenth-century, individuals from the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) were followed by certain Methodists, Presbyterians and Baptists, in writing and disseminating pamphlets against both the trade and slavery itself. In the years after the American Revolution, black congregations led by black preachers provided an institutional base for keeping abolitionism alive. In the early nineteenth-century, some American Protestants organized the first anti-slavery societies. According to historian David Eltis, the ideology of abolitionism eventually ended the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, changing the economic and human history on three continents.

Protestant missions

Protestant missionaries had a significant role in shaping multiple nations, cultures, and societies. Women made major contributions. A missionary's first job was to get to know the indigenous people and work with them to translate the Bible into their local language. Approximately 90% were completed. Often, the process also generated a written grammar, a lexicon of native traditions, and a dictionary of the local language. These were used to teach in missionary schools, resulting in the spread of literacy. According to historian Lamin Sanneh, Protestant missionaries began the "largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural renewal in history" in Africa. Many native cultures responded similarly.

Russian Orthodoxy (1917)

Main article: Russian Orthodox Church

Demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow on the orders of Joseph Stalin, 5 December 1931, consistent with the doctrine of state atheism in the USSR

The Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries saw the Church, like the tsarist state, as an enemy of the people. Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes led to imprisonment. Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals, and execution.

Historian Scott Kenworthy describes the persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church under communism as "unparalleled by any in Christian history". In the first five years after the October Revolution, one journalist reported that 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed. Others report that 8,000 people were killed in 1922. The League of Militant Atheists adopted a five-year plan in 1932 "aimed at the total eradication of religion by 1937".

Despite oppression and martyrdom under hostile rule, the Orthodox churches of the twentieth-century continued to contribute to theology, spirituality, liturgy, music, and art. Kenworthy adds that "Important movements within the church have been the revival of a Eucharistic ecclesiology, of traditional iconography, of monastic life and spiritual traditions such as Hesychasm, and the rediscovery of the Greek Church Fathers".

Christianity and Nazism (1930s)

Main article: Religion in Nazi Germany

Pope Pius XI

In the early twentieth-century, European states were advocating the separation of church and state, while also establishing authoritarian governments and state-supported churches. Such consanguinity would, after 1945, implicate the church in abuses of power.

Pope Pius XI declared in Mit brennender Sorge (English: "With rising anxiety") that fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position with totalitarian fascist state worship which placed the nation above God, fundamental human rights, and dignity.

In Poland, Catholic priests were arrested and Polish priests and nuns were executed en masse.

Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, the German Evangelical Church, which had a long tradition of nationalism and support of the state, supported the Nazis when they came to power. A smaller contingent, about a third of German Protestants, formed the Confessing Church which opposed Nazism.

Nazis interfered in The Confessing Church's affairs, harassed its members, executed mass arrests, and targeted well-known pastors like Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Bonhoeffer, a pacifist, was arrested, found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler, and executed.

After 1945

Main article: World Christianity

After World War II, Christianity became a global religion, faced major challenges, broke down denominational boundaries, was impacted by war, and gave substantive aid to the oppressed.

A global religion

Countries by percentage of Protestants, 1938

Christian distribution globally based on PEW research in 2011

The world's largest religion has been Christianity since the eighteenth-century. Before 1945, about a third of the people in the world were Christians (with about half of those Roman Catholic), and about 80% of all Christians lived in Europe, Russia, and the Americas. After the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and Russia, Christianity grew and expanded there. At the same time, it spread in Africa and Asia. By 2000, the percentage of Christians in the West dropped to around 40 percent, while the proportion living in Asia and Africa rose to 32 percent. Christianity's population center shifted east and south, making it a truly global religion.

In the first quarter of the twenty-first century, most Christians live outside North America and Western Europe. White Christians are a global minority, and slightly over half of worldwide Christians are female. It remains the world's largest religion into the twenty-first-century with roughly 2.4 billion followers, constituting around 31.2% of the world population.

Africa (19th–21st centuries)

Main article: Christianity in Africa

Laying on of hands during a service in a neo-charismatic church in Ghana

In 1900, under colonial rule, there were just under 9 million Christians in Africa. By 1960, and the end of colonialism, there were about 60 million. By 2005, African Christians had increased to 393 million, about half of the continent's total population. Population in Africa has continued to grow with the percentage of Christians remaining at about half in 2022. This expansion has been labeled a "fourth great age of Christian expansion".

Asia

Main article: Christianity in Asia

Christianity has grown rapidly in China and the rest of Southeast Asia, especially Korea, where it grew faster after colonialism than before it. A rapid expansion of charismatic Christianity began in the 1980s, leading Asia to rival Latin America in the population of Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians. The Council on Foreign Relations data shows a 10% yearly growth in Chinese Christian populations since 1979. Increasingly, this includes young people more than any other group.

Challenges

Traditional Christianity has faced multiple challenges in the twentieth-century. In the U.S., Pew has reported that "As recently as the early 1990s, about 90% of U.S. adults identified as Christians. But [in 2015], about two-thirds of adults are Christians". Secularism, the changing moral climate in the West, and various types of political opposition have led to a decline in church attendance. Hugh McLeod writes that,

The most powerful and effective criticism of Christianity in the twentieth-century has been the charge that it has been too closely identified with the rich and powerful, and too ready to legitimate the status quo. These political criticisms have had a far wider impact than those deriving from scientific or philosophical objections to religion.

Highly authoritarian and totalitarian governments have brought about crises and decline in churches in many areas. From 1945 into the 1980s, the world's first Marxist super-power, along with the many other communist governments, pursued anti-religious policies that were often violent. In 2013, 17 Muslim majority states reported 28 of the 29 types of religious discrimination against 45 of the 47 religious minorities in their countries, including Christianity. Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.

The challenges of secularism, and the changing moral climate of the 1960s and 1970s, caused controversy within the churches concerning sexual ethics, gender, and exclusivity. A growing demand for greater individual freedom led to new forms of religion that embrace the sacred as a deeper understanding of the self. This "New Age" spirituality is private and individualistic and differs radically from Christian tradition, dogma, and ritual.

Diversity and commonality

Main article: Ecumenism

Pope Francis

Collaboration between Protestants and Catholics made little progress until 11 October 1962, when Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. On 21 November 1964, the Second Vatican Council published Unitatis Redintegratio, stating that Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to establish full communion amongst all the various Christian churches including Protestants. Amongst Evangelicals, there is no agreed-upon definition, strategy, or goal for ecumenism. Different theologies on the nature of the Church have produced some hostility toward it instead.

While the sentiment is widespread that ecumenism at the upper levels of leadership has stalled, the trend at the local level has been toward discussion and prayer meetings, pulpit exchanges, and shared social action. The common threat of secularisation and a recognition of the destructive potential of religious hatred has encouraged cooperation between churches. In the U.S. there has been an increase in inter-marriage. Almost 40% of couples married since 2010, compared to 19% before 1960, have married someone outside of their faith, according to Pew Research Center.

Christianity is still diverse, and Christians still disagree, but the grounds have changed to topics that engage the deepest and most controversial issues of the twenty-first-century – "race, gender, colonialism, and liberation" – bringing these to the forefront of the larger more traditional Christian agenda. In Hugh MacLeod's view, "A liberal Catholic is likely to have a lot in common with a liberal Methodist", and this commonality is only likely to increase with the influence of the internet.

The Prosperity gospel formed as an adaptation of Pentecostalism. It challenges traditional Christianity because it has moved away from the Reformation view of biblical authority to the authority of personal charisma. Begun in the twentieth-century's last decades, it has become a trans-national movement. In 2000, approximately one-quarter of all Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements. By 2025, Pentecostals are expected to constitute one-third of the nearly three billion Christians worldwide making it the largest branch of Protestantism and the fastest-growing religious movement in global Christianity.

War

The multiple wars of the twentieth-century brought questions of theodicy to the forefront. Wars have had contradictory effects on the church, sometimes producing a loss of faith in human solutions, an upsurge in religiosity and patriotism, or an alienation from Christianity. For the first time since the pre-Constantinian era, Christian pacifism became an advocated Christian option to war in the twentieth-century.

The nineteenth-century revolutions that established Orthodoxy in the Serbian, Greek, Romanian, and Bulgarian nations were changed in the twentieth-century from a universal church into a series of national churches that became subordinate to nationalism and the state.

Particularizing Emancipation

Liberation theology has been especially effective in aiding the Latin American poor. To redeem the institutions of society using the "kingdom ideals" from Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, the Social Gospel combined with liberation theology to redefine social justice, focus on the community's sins, and expose institutionalized sin.

Originating in America in 1966, Black theology developed a combined social gospel and liberation theology that mixes Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black Power movement, and responses to black Muslims claiming Christianity was a "White man's" religion. Spreading to the United Kingdom, then parts of Africa, confronting apartheid in South Africa, Black theology explains Christianity as liberation for this life not just the next.

The feminist movement of the mid to late twentieth-century began with an anti-Christian ethos but soon developed a significant and influential Feminist theology dedicated to transforming the churches and society. In the last years of the twentieth-century, the re-examination of old religious texts through diversity, otherness, and difference developed womanist theology of African-American women, the "mujerista" theology of Hispanic women, and insights from Asian feminist theology.

Missions

After World War II, Christian missionaries played a transformative role in many colonial societies, moving them toward independence through decolonization. In the mid to late 1990s, postcolonial theology emerged globally from multiple sources. It analyzes structures of power and ideology to recover what colonialism erased or suppressed in indigenous cultures.

The missionary movement of the twenty-first-century has transformed into a multi-cultural, multi-faceted global network of NGO's, short-term amateur volunteers, and traditional long-term bilingual, bicultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development and not on 'civilizing' native people.

See also

• Catholic Church and Nazi Germany
• Celtic Christianity
• Christianization of Kievan Rus'
• Christianity and Judaism
• Christianity in Asia
• Christianity in Egypt
• Christianity in Syria
• Chronicle of Arbela
• Chronology of early Christian monasticism
• Chronology of Jesus
• Cluniac Reforms
• Criticism of Christianity
• Donation of Pepin
• Dutch Reformed Church
• English Benedictine Reform
• Frankish Papacy
• Germanic Christianity
• Hellenistic Judaism
• Historical background of the New Testament
• Historical Jesus
• Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire
• History of Calvinism
• History of Christianity of the Late Modern era
• History of Christian universalism
• History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
• History of Oriental Orthodoxy
• History of Protestantism
• History of the Catholic Church
• History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire
• Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
• Positive Christianity
• Religion in the Soviet Union
• Religious policies of Constantius II
• Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome
• Timeline of Christian missions
• Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church

Sources

Books & periodicals

• Abrams, Lesley (2016). "The conversion of the Danelaw". Vikings and the Danelaw: Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, Nottingham and York, 21-30 August 1997 (Repr. ed.). Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 31–44. ISBN 978-1-78570-453-6. JSTOR j.ctt1kw29nj.7.
• Abulafia, Anna Sapir (2002). "Introduction". In Abulafia, Anna Sapir (ed.). Religious Violence Between Christians and Jews: Medieval Roots, Modern Perspectives. Palgrave. pp. xi–xviii. ISBN 978-1-34942-499-3.
• Adams, Robert Merrihew (2021). "Nestorius and Nestorianism". The Monist. 104 (3): 366–375. doi:10.1093/monist/onab005.
• Aguilera-Barchet, Bruno (2015). "Popes vs. Emperors: The Rise and Fall of Papal Power". A History of Western Public Law. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-11803-1. ISBN 978-3-319-11802-4.
• Agosti, Gianfranco (2015). "Greek poetry". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 361–404. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.
• Aguzzi, Steven D. (2017). Israel, the Church, and Millenarianism: A Way beyond Replacement Theology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-11190-0.
• Akanji, Israel (2010). "Black Theology". In Irele, Abiola (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533473-9.
• Albert, Eleanor (2018). "Christianity in China". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
• Allen Jr., John L. (2016). The Global War on Christians: Dispatches from the Front Lines of Anti-Christian Persecution. Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-770-43737-4.
• Althoff, Gerd (2019). "Papal Authority in the High Middle Ages". Rules and Rituals in Medieval Power Games. Brill. pp. 173–188. doi:10.1163/9789004415317_015. ISBN 978-9-00441-531-7. S2CID 211661394.
• Althoff, Gerd (2019). "Communicating Papal Primacy: the Impact of Gregory VII's Ideas (11th–13th Century)". Rules and Rituals in Medieval Power Games. Brill. pp. 189–202. doi:10.1163/9789004415317_015. ISBN 978-9-00441-531-7. S2CID 211661394.
• Ames, Christine Caldwell (2009). Righteous Persecution: Inquisition, Dominicans, and Christianity in the Middle Ages. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4133-4.
• Anderson, Allan; Tang, Edmund (2005). Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia. Oxford Centre for Mission Studies. ISBN 978-1-870345-43-9.
• Ankarloo, Bengt [in Swedish]; Clark, Stuart; Monter, E. William, eds. (2002). Witchcraft and Magic in Europe. Vol. 4: The Period of the Witch Trials. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3617-0.
• Antoljak, Stjepan (1994). Pregled hrvatske povijesti [An Overview of the History of Croatia] (in Croatian) (2nd ed.). Split: Orbis. ISBN 978-953-6044-01-6.
• Arnold, John H. (2018). "Persecution and Power in Medieval Europe: The Formation of a Persecuting Society, by R. I. Moore". The American Historical Review (Book review). 123 (1). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
• Asprey, Christopher (2008). Murphy, Francesca Aran (ed.). Ecumenism Today: The Universal Church in the 21st Century (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7546-5961-7.
• Aston, Nigel (2006). "Continental Catholic Europe". In Brown, S.; Tackett, T. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–32. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.003. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.
• Bachrach, Bernard S. (1977). Early medieval Jewish policy in Western Europe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0814-0.
• Baird, William (1992). History of New Testament Research, Volume One: From Deism to Tübingen. Fortress. ISBN 978-1-4514-2017-3.
• Barnett, Victoria (1992). For the Soul of the People: Protestant Protest Against Hitler. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512118-6. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Bardill, Jonathan (2012). Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0.
• Barnett, S. J. (1999). "Where Was Your Church before Luther? Claims for the Antiquity of Protestantism Examined". Church History. 68 (1): 14–41. doi:10.2307/3170108. JSTOR 3170108. S2CID 154764488.
• Barnish, SJB (1988). "Transformation and Survival in the Western Senatorial Aristocracy, c. A.D. 400–700". Papers of the British School at Rome. 56: 120–155. doi:10.1017/S0068246200009582.
• Barton, John (1998). Holy Writings, Sacred Text: The Canon in Early Christianity (Repr. ed.). Westminster John Knox. ISBN 978-0-664-25778-1.
• Barton, James Levi (1998). Turkish Atrocities: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917. Armenian Genocide Documentation Series. Vol. 2. Gomidas Institute. ISBN 978-1-884630-04-0.
• Barton, Simon (2009). A History of Spain (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-137-01347-7. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
• Bauer, Susan Wise (2013). The History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05976-2.
• Becker, Sascha O.; Pfaff, Steven; Rubin, Jared (2016). "Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation". ESI Working Paper 16–13. ISSN 2572-1496. Archived from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Bejczy, István (1997). "Tolerantia: A Medieval Concept". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (3): 365–384. doi:10.2307/3653905. JSTOR 3653905.
• Bernardini, Paolo; Fiering, Norman (2001). The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450 to 1800. Berghahn. ISBN 978-1-57181-430-2.
• Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed (1st ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4094-4659-0.
• Ackroyd, P. R.; Evans, C. F., eds. (1970). The Cambridge History of the Bible. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07418-6.
• Bokenkotter, Thomas (2007). A Concise History of the Catholic Church (Rev. ed.). New York: Crown. ISBN 978-0-307-42348-1.
• Bond, Sarah E. (2015). "Curial Communiqué: Memory, Propaganda, and the Roman Senate House". In Brice, Lee L.; Slootjes, Daniëlle (eds.). Aspects of Ancient Institutions and Geography Studies in Honor of Richard J.A. Talbert. Brill Academic. pp. 84–102. ISBN 978-90-04-28372-5.
• Bonser, Wilfrid (1962). "The Cult of Relics in the Middle Ages". Folklore. 73 (4): 234–56. JSTOR 1258503.
• Boppart, Timo; Falkinger, Josef; Grossmann, Volker (1 April 2014). "Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills" (PDF). Economic Inquiry. 52 (2): 874–895. doi:10.1111/ecin.12058. ISSN 1465-7295. S2CID 10220106. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2020.
• Father Arseny, 1893–1973: Priest, Prisoner, Spiritual Father: Being the Narratives Compiled by the Servant of God Alexander Concerning His Spiritual Father. Translated by Vera Bouteneff. St. Vladmir's Seminary Press. 1998. pp. vi–1. ISBN 978-0-88141-180-5. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Bradbury, Scott (1995). "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice". Phoenix. 49 (4): 331–356. doi:10.2307/1088885. JSTOR 1088885.
• Bremmer, Jan N. (2020). "2: Priestesses, Pogroms and Persecutions: Religious Violence in Antiquity in a Diachronic Perspective". In Raschle, Christian R.; Dijkstra, Jitse H. F. (eds.). Religious Violence in the Ancient World From Classical Athens to Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-84921-0.
• Brink, Stefan (2004). "New Perspectives on the Christianization of Scandinavia and the Organization of the Early Church". Scandinavia and Europe 800-1350: Contact, Conflict, and Coexistence. ISD. pp. 163–175. ISBN 978-2-503-51085-9.
• Brita, Antonella (2020). "Genres of Ethiopian-Eritrean Christian Literature with a Focus on Hagiography". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.). A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea. Brill. pp. 252–281. ISBN 978-90-04-41943-8. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
• Broadhead, Edwin K. (2017). "Early Jewish Christianity". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• Brodman, James (2009). Charity and Religion in Medieval Europe. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1580-8.
• Brown, Christopher (2006). "Christianity and the campaign against slavery and the slave trade". In Brown, Stewart; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. pp. 517–535. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.028. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.
• Brown, P. (1964). "St. Augustine's Attitude to Religious Coercion". Journal of Roman Studies. 54 (1–2): 107–116. doi:10.2307/298656. JSTOR 298656. S2CID 162757247.
• Brown, Peter (1976). "Eastern and western Christendom in late antiquity: a parting of the way". Studies in Church History. 13: 1–24. doi:10.1017/S0424208400006574.
• Brown, Peter (1998). "Christianization and religious conflict". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30200-5.
• Brown, Peter (2012). The rise of Western Christendom: triumph and diversity, A.D. 200–1000 (Third, revised ed.). Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-33884-1.
• Brown, Peter (2008). "Introduction: Christendom, c. 600". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.
• Brown, Raymond E. (2010) [1997]. An Introduction to the New Testament. The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14016-3.
• Bruce, F. F. (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1258-5.
• Bryant, James Henry (1866), The mutual influence of Christianity and the Stoic school
• Bukowska, Aneta (2012). "The Origins of Christianity in Poland. Actual Research on the Church Archaeology". Christianisierung Europas: Entstehung, Entwicklung und Konsolidierung im archäologischen Befund. Schnell & Steiner. pp. 449–468.
• Bull, Marcus (2009). "Crusade and conquest". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 340–352. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811064. ISBN 978-1-139-05602-1.
• Bundy, David (2007). "Early Asian and East African Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 118–148. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Burgess, Stanley M. (2006). "Introduction". In Burgess, Stanley M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity. Religion and Society. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96966-6.
• Bury, J.B. (1967). The invasion of Europe by the barbarians (reissue ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00388-8.
• Bury, J. B. (2013). History of the Later Roman Empire. Vol. 2: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian (reprint ed.). Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-14339-2.
• Bussell, Frederick William [in German] (1910). The Roman Empire: Essays on the Constitutional History from the Accession of Domitian (81 A.D.) to the Retirement of Nicephorus III (1081 A.D.). Longmans, Green & Co. Retrieved 5 August 2023.
• Butler, Cuthbert (1919). Benedictine Monachism: Studies in Benedictine Life and Rule. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. pp. 3–8.
• Cairns, Earle E. (2015). An Endless Line of Splendor: Revivals and Their Leaders from the Great Awakening to the Present. Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-4982-2340-9.
• Calciu-Dumitreasa, George (May 1983). "Sermons to young people by Father George Calciu-Dumitreasa. Given at the Chapel of the Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary". Word Magazine. Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. pp. 5–8. Archived from the original on 2 March 2007. Retrieved 11 May 2007 – via Orthodox Research Institute.
• Cameron, Alan (2010). The Last Pagans of Rome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974727-6.
• Cameron, Averil (2006). "Constantine and the 'peace of the church'". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 538–551. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.032. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.
• Cameron, Averil (2015). The Mediterranean world in late Antiquity: AD 395–700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-67306-1.
• Cameron, Averil (2017). Byzantine Christianity: A Very Brief History. SPCK. ISBN 978-0-281-07614-7.
• Cameron, Alan; Long, Jacqueline; Sherry, Lee (1993), Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-06550-5
• Carrington, Philip (1957). The Early Christian Church. Vol. 1, The First Christian Church (Repr. ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-16641-6.
• Casanova, José (1994). Public Religions in the Modern World. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-09535-6.
• Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (2007). "Introduction". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Cassidy, Edward Idris (2005). Ecumenism and Interreligious Dialogue: Unitatis Redintegratio, Nostra Aetate. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4338-2.
• Castelli, Elizabeth A. (2004). Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian Culture Making. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Chamberlin, Eric Russell (1986). The Bad Popes. Dorset. ISBN 978-0-88029-116-3.
• Chinnici, Joseph P. (2012). "Ecumenism, Civil Rights, and the Second Vatican Council: The American Experience". U.S. Catholic Historian. 30 (3): 21–49. ISSN 0735-8318. JSTOR 23362900.
• Chopp, Rebecca S.; Regan, Ethna (2013). "Latin American Liberation Theology". In Ford, David F.; Muers, Rachel (eds.). The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology Since 1918 (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 469–484. ISBN 978-1-118-83496-1.
• Christiansen, Eric (1997). The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-026653-5.
• Clifton, Shane (2012). "Ecumenism from the bottom up: A Pentecostal perspective". Journal of Ecumenical Studies. 47 (4): 576–592.
• Cloke, Gillian (1995). This Female Man of God: Women and Spiritual Power in the Patristic Age, 350–450 AD. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09469-6.
• Coffey, John (December 1998). "Puritanism and Liberty Revisited: The Case for Toleration in the English Revolution". The Historical Journal. 41 (4): 961–985. doi:10.1017/S0018246X98008103. S2CID 159485109.
• Coffey, John (2014). Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-88442-2.
• Cohen, Jeremy (1998). "'Slay Them Not': Augustine and the Jews in Modern Scholarship". Medieval Encounters. 4 (1). E. J. Brill: 78–92. doi:10.1163/157006798X00043. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
• Coleman, Simon (2016). "12: The Prosperity Gospel: Debating Charisma, Controversy and Capitalism". In Hunt, Stephen J. (ed.). Handbook of global Contemporary Christianity. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-31078-0.
• Collins, Roger (1998). Charlemagne. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8218-3.
• Constable, Olivia Remie (2004). Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44968-7.
• Constable, Giles (1998). The Reformation of the Twelfth Century (Rev. ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63871-5.
• Cooper, Michael T. (2005). "Colonialism, neo-colonialism and forgotten missiological lessons". Global Missiology. 2 (2): 1–14.
• Costambeys, Marios (2000). "Property, ideology and the territorial power of the papacy in the early Middle Ages". Early Medieval Europe. 9 (3). doi:10.1111/1468-0254.00075.
• Cowe, S. (2006). "The Armenians in the era of the crusades 1050–1350". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity Eastern Christianity. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–429. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.018. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.
• Crislip, Andrew Todd (2005). From Monastery to Hospital: Christian Monasticism & the Transformation of Health Care in Late Antiquity. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11474-0.
• Croix, G. E. M. de Sainte (2006). Whitby, Michael (ed.). Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927812-1.
• Croke, Brian (2015). "Historiography". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (illustrated reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 405–436. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.
• Cropp, Glynnis M. (2007). "Nero, emperor and tyrant, in the medieval French tradition". Florilegium. 24 (1): 21–36. doi:10.3138/flor.24.006.
• Cross, Richard (2001). "A Recent Contribution on the Distinction between Monophysitism and Chalcedonianism". The Thomist: A Speculative Quarterly Review. 65 (3). Project MUSE: 361–383. doi:10.1353/tho.2001.0001.
• Crowston, Clare (2008). "Women, gender, and guilds in early modern Europe: An overview of recent research". International Review of Social History. 53 (S16): 19–44. doi:10.1017/S0020859008003593.
• Cullmann, Oscar (2018). The Earliest Christian Confessions (reprint ed.). Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-5326-5336-0.
• Cunningham, Mary B.; Theokritoff, Elizabeth (2008). The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86484-8.
• Deane, Jennifer Kolpacoff (2022). A History of Medieval Heresy and Inquisition. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-5295-9.
• de Juan, Alexander; Pierskalla, Jan Henryk (2017). "The Comparative Politics of Colonialism and Its Legacies: An Introduction". Politics & Society. 45 (2 Special Issue): 159–172. doi:10.1177/0032329217704434. S2CID 54971921.
• De Jonge, H. J. (2003). "The New Testament Canon". In Auwers, Jean-Marie; De Jonge, H. J. bibliques de (eds.). The Biblical Canons. Leuven University Press. pp. 309–319. ISBN 978-2-87723-651-5. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Deininger, Matthias (2014). Global Pentecostalism: An Inquiry into the Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Anchor. ISBN 978-3-95489-570-0.
• Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. ISBN 978-90-5972-487-7.
• Desan, Suzanne (2006). "The French Revolution and religion, 1795–1815". In Brown, Stewart J.; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7: Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 1660–1815. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.
• Dixon, C. Scott (2017). "Luther's Ninety-Five Theses and the Origins of the Reformation Narrative". The English Historical Review. 132 (556). Oxford University Press: 533–569. doi:10.1093/ehr/cex224.
• Dorfmann-Lazarev, Igor (2008). "Beyond empire I: Eastern Christianities from the Persian to the Turkish conquest, 604–1071". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.
• Dowley, Tim (2018). A Short Introduction to the History of Christianity. Fortress. ISBN 978-1-5064-4597-7.
• Doyle, Jim; Hightower, Sarah (2003). "A French Genocide:The Vendée". The Library Journal. 128 (10).
• Drake, H. A. (2007). "The church, society and political power". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 21. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Dunbabin, Jean (2003). "The Council of Bourges, 1225: a Documentary History". The English Historical Review. 118 (475): 178–179. doi:10.1093/ehr/118.475.178.
• Dunn, Marilyn (2003). The Emergence of Monasticism: From the Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-0641-2. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Dunn, Dennis J. (2016). A History of Orthodox, Islamic, and Western Christian Political Values. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-32566-8.
• Eichbauer, M. H. (2022). "The Shaping and Reshaping of the Relationship between Church and State from Late Antiquity to the Present: A Historical Perspective through the Lens of Canon Law". Religions. 13 (5): 378. doi:10.3390/rel13050378.
• Eidintas, Alfonsas (2001). President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag: a Biography of Aleksandras Stulginskis. Genocide and Resistance Research Center of Lithuania. ISBN 978-9986-757-41-2. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Eltis, David (1987). Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536481-1.
• Engels, Frederick (1978). "The Peasant War in Germany". Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Vol. 10. Lawrence & Wishart. ISBN 978-0-85315-355-9. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3038-3.
• Estep, William R. (1986). "Attempts at Reform: Wycliffe and Huss". Renaissance and Reformation. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 58–77. ISBN 978-0-8028-0050-3. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
• Fahlbusch, Erwin; Bromiley, Geoffrey William, eds. (2003). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 3. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-04-12654-1.
• Ferguson, Everett (2002). "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon". In McDonald, L. M.; Sanders, J. A. (eds.). The Canon Debate (reprint ed.). Hendrickson. ISBN 978-0-8010-4708-4.
• Fernandez, James W. (1979). "Africanization, Europeanization, Christianization". History of Religions. 18 (3): 284–292. doi:10.1086/462823. S2CID 162935593.
• Ferzoco, George (2001). "The Changing face of Tradition: Monastic Education in the Middle Ages". In Ferzoco, George; Muessig, Carolyn (eds.). Medieval Monastic Education. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4411-4340-2.
• Firlej, Dominik (2021–2022). "Why did Polish Kings not go on Crusade in the Levant?" (PDF). The Cupola. 16: 120–135. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
• Flannery, John M. (2013). The Mission of the Portuguese Augustinians to Persia and Beyond (1602–1747). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-24382-8. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
• Folda, Jaroslav (1995). "7". In Riley-Smith, Jonathan (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820435-0.
• Fonnesberg-Schmidt, Iben (2007). The popes and the Baltic crusades, 1147–1254. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15502-2.
• Fonnesberg-Schmidt, Iben (2009). "Pope Honorius III and Mission and Crusades in the Baltic Region". In Murray, Alan V. (ed.). The Clash of Cultures on the Medieval Baltic Frontier. Ashgate. pp. 103–122. ISBN 978-0-7546-6483-3.
• Fontaine, Darcie (2016). Decolonizing Christianity: Religion and the End of Empire in France and Algeria. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11817-1.
• Ford, David F. (2013). "Introduction". In Ford, David F.; Muers, Rachel (eds.). The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology Since 1918 (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-83496-1.
• Fousek, Jan; Kaše, Vojtěch; Mertel, Adam; Výtvarová, Eva; Chalupa, Aleš (26 December 2018). "Spatial constraints on the diffusion of religious innovations: The case of early Christianity in the Roman Empire". PLOS One. 13 (12): e0208744. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1308744F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208744. PMC 6306252. PMID 30586375.
• Fox, Jonathan (2013). "Religious discrimination against religious minorities in Middle Eastern Muslim states". Civil Wars. 15 (4): 454–470. doi:10.1080/13698249.2013.853413. S2CID 144353518.
• Fox, Robin Lane (1987). Pagans and Christians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-55495-2.
• Franck, Thomas M. (1997). "Is Personal Freedom a Western Value?". American Journal of International Law. 91 (4): 593–627. doi:10.2307/2998096. JSTOR 2998096. S2CID 144328175.
• Frassetto, Michael (2007). Heretic Lives: Medieval Heresy from Bogomil and the Cathars to Wyclif and Hus. London: Profile. pp. 7–198. ISBN 978-1-86197-744-1.
• Frend, W. H. C. (2020). The Donatist Church. Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-5326-9755-5.
• Freston, Paul (2008). "The Changing Face of Christian Proselytization: New Actors from the Global South". In Hackett, Rosalind I. J. (ed.). Proselytization Revisited: Rights Talk, Free Markets, and Culture Wars (1st ed.). New York & London: Routledge. pp. 109–138. ISBN 978-1-84553-228-4. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
• Fulton, Rachel (2009). "Mary". In Rubin, M.; Simons, W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 283–296. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811064.020. ISBN 978-1-139-05602-1.
• Gaddis, Michael (2005). There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6.
• Garcia, Cheryl Crozier (2004). "Reviewed work: The Fourth Estate: A History of Women in the Middle Ages, Shulamith Shahar, Chaya Galai". International Social Science Review. 79 (3/4): 179–80. JSTOR 41887204.
• Gardner, Jane F. (1991). Women in Roman Law & Society. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-253-20635-0.
• Garrett, William R. (1987). "Religion, Law, and the Human Condition". Sociological Analysis. 47. Oxford University Press: 1–34. doi:10.2307/3711649. JSTOR 3711649.
• Gasper, Louis (2020). The Fundamentalist Movement (Repr. ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-231758-7.
• Gerberding, R.; Moran Cruz, J. H. (2004). Medieval Worlds. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-56087-7.
• Gerdmar, Anders (2009). Roots of Theological Anti-Semitism German Biblical Interpretation and the Jews, from Herder and Semler to Kittel and Bultmann. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16851-0.
• Gilley, Sheridan (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 8: World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81456-0.
• Given, James Buchanan (2001). Inquisition and Medieval Society: Power, Discipline, and Resistance in Languedoc (Illustrated ed.). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8759-0.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. (2010). The Story of Christianity. Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-185589-4. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
• Goodenough, Erwin R. (1962). "Catacomb Art". Journal of Biblical Literature. 81 (2): 113–142. doi:10.2307/3264749. JSTOR 3264749.
• Goodman, Martin (2007). "Identity and Authority in Ancient Judaism". Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15309-7.
• Grabar, André (2023). Christian Iconography. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-25209-4.
• Green, Clifford (January 2015). "Peace Ethic or "Pacifism"?: An Assessment of Bonhoeffer the Assassin?". Modern Theology. 31 (1): 201–208. doi:10.1111/moth.12144.
• Green, Bernard (2010). Christianity in Ancient Rome: The First Three Centuries. London: A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-5670-3250-8.
• Gregerman, Adam (2016). Building on the Ruins of the Temple Apologetics and Polemics in Early Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-154322-7.
• Grzymała-Busse, Anna M. (2023). Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State (Illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-24513-3.
• Guy, Laurie (2011). Introducing Early Christianity: A Topical Survey of Its Life, Beliefs Practices. Westmont: InterVarsity.
• Haberkern, Phillip N. (2016). Patron Saint and Prophet: Jan Hus in the Bohemian and German Reformations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-028074-1.
• Haight, Roger D. (2004). Christian Community in History. Vol. 1: Historical Ecclesiology. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1630-8.
• Hall, John R.; Battani, Marshall; Neitz, Mary Jo (2004). Sociology On Culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-45237-8.
• Harnett, Benjamin (2017). "The Diffusion of the Codex". Classical Antiquity. 36 (2). University of California Press: 183–235. doi:10.1525/ca.2017.36.2.183. JSTOR 26362608.
• Harney, Lorcan (2017). "Christianising Pagan Worlds in Conversion-Era Ireland: Archaeological Evidence for the Origins of Irish Ecclesiastical Sites". Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature. 117C: 103–130. doi:10.3318/priac.2017.117.07.
• Harper, Kyle (2015). "Marriage and Family". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 667–714. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.
• Harries, J.; Wood, I. (2010). The Theodosian Code: studies in the Imperial law of late antiquity (second ed.). Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-1-85399-740-2.
• Harris, Harriet A. (1998). Fundamentalism and Evangelicals (Repr. ed.). Clarendon. ISBN 978-0-19-826960-1.
• Harris, Jonathan (2014). Byzantium and the Crusades. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-78093-736-6.
• Harvey, Paul (2016). Christianity and Race in the American South A History. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-41549-9.
• Harvey, Susan Ashbrook (2006). "Syria and Mesopotamia". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 351–365. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021. ISBN 978-0-521-81239-9.
• Haskins, Charles Homer (1971). Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Rev. ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-76075-2.
• Hastings, Ed (2000). "Law". In Hastings, Adrian; Mason, Alistair; Pyper, Hugh S. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4.
• Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532541-6.
• Hebblewhite, Mark (2020). Theodosius and the Limits of Empire. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315103334. ISBN 978-1-138-10298-9. S2CID 213344890.
• Heimert, Alan (2006). Religion and the American Mind: From the Great Awakening to the Revolution (Repr. ed.). Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-59752-614-2.
• Heller, Henry (1996). "Putting History Back into the Religious Wars: A Reply to Mack P. Holt". French Historical Studies. 19 (3): 853–861. doi:10.2307/286649. JSTOR 286649.
• Helvétius, Anne-Marie; Kaplan, Michel (2008). "Asceticism and its institutions". In Noble, Thomas F. X.; Smith, Julia M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05422-5.
• Herrin, Judith (2009). "Book Burning as purification". In Rousseau, Philip; Papoutsakis, Emmanuel (eds.). Transformations of Late Antiquity: Essays for Peter Brown. Vol. 2 (Repr. ed.). Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6553-3.
• Heß, Cordelia (2013). "A Common Enemy: Late Medieval Anticlericalism Revisited". Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft. 21 (1): 77–96. doi:10.1515/zfr-2013-0003.
• Higham, Nicholas John; Ryan, Martin J. (2013). The Anglo-Saxon world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12534-4.
• Hilkert, Mary Catherine (1995). "Feminist theology: a review of literature". Theological Studies. 56 (2): 327–341. doi:10.1177/004056399505600206. S2CID 171166197.
• Hobson, Theo (2013). Reinventing Liberal Christianity. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6840-4.
• Holmes, J. Derek (1981). The Papacy in the Modern World, 1914–1978. Crossroad. ISBN 978-0-8245-0047-4. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Hopkins, Keith (1998). "Christian Number and Its Implications". Journal of Early Christian Studies. 6 (2): 185–226. doi:10.1353/earl.1998.0035. S2CID 170769034.
• Houtman, Dick; Aupers, Stef (2007). "The Spiritual Turn and the Decline of Tradition:The Spread of Post-Christian Spirituality in 14 Western Countries, 1981–2000". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 46 (3): 287–434. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2007.00360.x.
• Howe, John (2016). Before the Gregorian Reform: The Latin Church at the Turn of the First Millennium. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-501-70370-6.
• Humfress, Caroline (2013). "5: Laws' Empire: Roman Universalism and Legal Practice". New Frontiers: Law and Society in the Roman World. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-6817-5.
• Humfress, Caroline (2015). "7 Patristic sources". In Johnston, David (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Roman Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89564-4.
• Hunter, Dard (1978) [1947]. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-23619-3.
• Hunyadi, Zsolt; Laszlovszky, József [in Hungarian] (2001). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-9241-42-8.
• Inglebert, Hervé (2015). "Introduction". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.
• Iricinschi, Eduard; Zellentin, Holger M. (2008). "Making selves and Marking others: identity and Late Antique Heresiologies". Heresy and identity in late antiquity. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 1–27. ISBN 978-3-16-149122-1.
• Isichei, Elizabeth (1995). A history of Christianity in Africa: From antiquity to the present. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-0843-1.
• Ivanič, Peter (2016). "The origins of Christianity in the territory of Czech and Slovak republics within the contexts of written sources". European Journal of Science and Theology. 12 (6): 123–130. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
• Jacob, Margaret (2006). "The Enlightenment critique of Christianity". In S. J. Brown; T. Tackett (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7: Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 1660–1815. Cambridge University Press. pp. 265–282. ISBN 978-0-521-81605-2.
• Jacobs, Ine (2012). "The Creation of the Late Antique City: Constantinople and Asia Minor During the 'Theodosian Renaissance'". Byzantion. 82: 113–164. JSTOR 44173257.
• Jenkins, Philip (2011). "The Rise of the New Christianity". The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–133. ISBN 978-0-19-976746-5. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
• Jenkins, Philip (2008). The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia — and How It Died. HarperCollins. pp. 14–15.
• Jestice, Phyllis G. (1997). Wayward Monks and the Religious Revolution of the Eleventh Century. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10722-9.
• Jones, David Ceri; White, Eryn Mant (2012). The Elect Methodists: Calvinistic Methodism in England and Wales, 1735–1811. University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-2502-5.
• Judge, E. A. (2010). Nobbs, Alanna (ed.). Jerusalem and Athens: Cultural Transformation in Late Antiquity. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150572-0. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
• Kahlos, Maijastina (2019). Religious Dissent in Late Antiquity, 350–450. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006725-0. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
• Kaldellis, Anthony (2012). Procopius of Caesarea: Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0241-0.
• Kamen, Henry (1981). "500 Years of The Spanish Inquisition". History Today. 31 (2).
• Kamen, Henry (2014). The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision (Unabridged ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18051-0.
• Kaplan, Benjamin J. (2009). Divided by Faith Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-674-03930-8.
• Kelly, Joseph Francis (2009). The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5376-0. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Kenworthy, Scott M. (2008). "Beyond Schism: Restoring Eastern Orthodoxy to the History of Christianity". Reviews in Religion and Theology. 15 (2): 171–178. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9418.2007.00377_1.x.
• Kienzle, Beverly Mayne (2001). Cistercians, Heresy, and Crusade in Occitania, 1145–1229: Preaching in the Lord's Vineyard. Boydell. ISBN 978-1-903153-00-0.
• Kienzle, Beverly Mayne (2009). "Religious poverty and the search for perfection". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–53. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811064. ISBN 978-1-139-05602-1.
• Kim, Hyun Jin (2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-06722-6.
• Kim, Lloyd (2006). Polemic in the Book of Hebrews: Anti-Judaism, Anti-Semitism, Supersessionism?. Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-498-27636-8.
• King, Ursula (2001). Christian Mystics: Their Lives and Legacies Throughout the Ages. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-1-58768-012-0.
• Kirby, David P. (2000). The earliest English kings (Rev. ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24211-0.
• Kitromilides, Paschalis (2006). "Orthodoxy and the west: Reformation to Enlightenment". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–209. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.009. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.
• Klier, John Doyle; Lambroza, Shlomo (2004). Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52851-1. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Klutz, Todd (2002) [2000]. "Part II: Christian Origins and Development – Paul and the Development of Gentile Christianity". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Routledge Worlds (1st ed.). New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19934-4.
• Kolbaba, Tia M. (2008). "Latin and Greek Christians". In Noble, Thomas F. X.; Smith, Julia M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 213–229. ISBN 978-1-139-05422-5.
• Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, Leonard Scott; Quarles, Charles Leland (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. B&H. ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Kostick, Conor (2010). "Introduction". In Kostick, Conor (ed.). The Crusades and the Near East: Cultural Histories. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-90247-5. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Kraemer, Ross S. (1980). "The Conversion of Women to Ascetic Forms of Christianity". Signs. 6 (2): 298–307. doi:10.1086/493798. JSTOR 3173928. S2CID 143202380.
• Kwiatkowska, Theresa (2010). "The Light Was Retreating Before Darkness: tales of the Witchhunt and Climate change". Medievalia (42). Mexico City: Ciudad Universitaria: 30–37. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
• Lacopo, Frank P. (2016). "Medieval Europe and the Culture of Contempt in the Age of the Lateran Councils". Grand Valley Journal of History. 4 (2).
• Law, David R. (2012). The Historical-Critical Method: A Guide for the Perplexed. T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-56740-012-3.
• LaFosse, Mona Tokarek (2017). "Women, Children and house churches". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• Law, Stephen (2011). "Evidence, Miracles, and the Existence of Jesus". Faith and Philosophy. 28 (2): 129. doi:10.5840/faithphil20112821. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
• Lazzarini, Isabella; Blanning, T. C. W., eds. (2021). The Later Middle Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-873164-1.
• Leadbetter, Bill (2002). "From Constantine to Theodosius (and beyond)". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• LeGoff, Jacques (2000). Medieval Civilization 400–1500. Translated by Barrow, Julia (Repr. ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-7607-1652-6.
• Levack, Brian P. (2013). "Introduction". In Levack, Brian P. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0-19-957816-0.
• Lieu, Judith M. (1999). "The 'attraction of women' in/to early Judaism and Christianity: gender and the politics of conversion". Journal for the Study of the New Testament. 21 (72): 5–22. doi:10.1177/0142064X9902107202. S2CID 144475695.
• Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2007). "Christianity and Manichaeism". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 279–295. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Introduction". In Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (eds.). God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05538-4.
• Logan, F. Donald (2013). A History of the Church in the Middle Ages (illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66994-8.
• Löhr, Winrich (2007). "Western Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 2. Cambridge University. pp. 7–51. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Longwell, Horace Craig (1928). "The Significance of Scholasticism". The Philosophical Review. 37 (3): 210–225. doi:10.2307/2179428. JSTOR 2179428.
• Louth, Andrew (2008). "The emergence of Byzantine Orthodoxy, 600–1095". In Noble, Thomas F. X.; Smith, Julia M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. Early Medieval Christianities, c.600–c.1100. ISBN 978-1-139-05422-5.
• MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2004). The Reformation: A History. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03296-9. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2009). A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9869-6.
• MacDonald, Margaret Y. (1996). Early Christian Women and Pagan Opinion The power of the hysterical woman. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56174-7.
• Macdonald, Stuart (2015). "The Changed (and Changing) Face of Church History". Toronto Journal of Theology. 31 (1): 29–42. doi:10.3138/tjt.30.suppl_1.29.
• Mannion, Gerard; Mudge, Lewis Seymour (2008). The Routledge Companion to the Christian Church. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37420-0.
• Marabello, Thomas Quinn (2021). "The 500th Anniversary of the Swiss Reformation: How Zwingli changed and continues to impact Switzerland today". Swiss American Historical Society Review. 57 (1): 3. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• Marcocci, Giuseppe (2013). Paiva, José Pedro (ed.). "From start to finish: the history of the Portuguese Inquisition revisited". História da Inquisição Portuguesa (1536–1821). 20. Lisboa: Esfera dos Livros. Archived from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
• Marcus, Joel (2006). "Jewish Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Francis M. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–102. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.
• Markus, Robert Austin (1990). The End of Ancient Christianity (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33949-0.
• Marty, Martin (2006). "The American Revolution and religion, 1765–1815". In Brown, Stewart; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. pp. 495–516. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.027. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.
• Marvin, Laurence W. (2008). The Occitan War: A Military and Political History of the Albigensian Crusade, 1209–1218. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-47014-8.
• Masters, Ryan K.; Young, Michael P. (2022). "The Power of Religious Activism in Tocqueville's America: The Second Great Awakening and the Rise of Temperance and Abolitionism in New York State". Social Science History. 46 (3): 473–504. doi:10.1017/ssh.2022.6. S2CID 247830382.
• Mathew, Arnold Harris (2018). The Life and Times of Rodrigo Borgia, Pope Alexander VI (Repr. ed.). Creative. ISBN 978-0-342-68601-8. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
• Mathews, Shailer (1909). "The Council at Jerusalem". The Biblical World. 33 (5). The University of Chicago Press: 337–342. doi:10.1086/474194. JSTOR 3141730.
• Mathisen, Ralph W. (2002). "The Christianization of the Late Roman Senatorial Order: Circumstances and Scholarship". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 9issue=Fall 2 (2): 257–278. doi:10.1007/BF02898437. JSTOR 30224309.
• Matthews, Roy T.; Platt, F. DeWitt (1998). The Western Humanities. Mayfield. ISBN 978-0-87484-785-7.
• Matter, Ann E. (2008). "Orthodoxy and deviance". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 510–530. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.
• Mayer, T. F. (2014). The Roman Inquisition on the Stage of Italy, c. 1590–1640. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4573-8.
• Maxwell, Jaclyn (2015). "Paganism and Christianization". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 849–875. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.
• McGill, Scott (2015). "Latin poetry". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 335–360. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.
• McGinn, Sheila E. (2017). "Internal Renewal and Dissent in the Early Christian World". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• McLeod, Hugh (2006). "Introduction". In McLeod, Hugh (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 9: World Christianities c.1914-c.2000. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–14. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521815000.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05485-0.
• Meaney, Audrey L. (January 2004). "'And we forbeodað eornostlice ælcne hæðenscipe': Wulfstan and Late Anglo-Saxon and Norse 'Heathenism'". Wulfstan, Archbishop of York. Studies in the Early Middle Ages. 10. Brepols: 461–500. doi:10.1484/m.sem-eb.3.3720. ISBN 978-2-503-52224-1.
• Meeks, Wayne A. (2003). The First Urban Christians (2nd ed.). Yale University. ISBN 978-0-300-09861-7.
• Meyendorff, John (1979). Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes (Rev. ed.). Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-0967-5.
• Micheau, Françoise (2006). "Eastern Christianities (eleventh to fourteenth century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5: Eastern Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.
• Milnor, Kristina (2011). "Women in Roman Society". In Peachin, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188004.013.0029. ISBN 978-0-19-518800-4.
• Mintz, Steven (1995). Moralists and Modernizers: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5081-3.
• Moore, R. I. (2007). The Formation of a Persecuting Society (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2964-0.
• Moravcsik, Gyula (December 1947). "The Role of the Byzantine Church in Medieval Hungary". American Slavic and East European Review. 6 (3/4): 134–151. doi:10.2307/2491705. JSTOR 2491705.
• Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-24008-7.
• Morris, Colin (1989). The Papal Monarchy: the western church from 1050 to 1250. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-152053-2.
• Mout, Nicolette (2007). "Peace without concord: Religious toleration in theory and practice". In Hsia, R. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–243. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811620.014. ISBN 978-1-139-05484-3.
• Muers, Rachel (2013). "Feminism, Gender, and Theology". In Ford, David F.; Muers, Rachel (eds.). The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology Since 1918 (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 431–450. ISBN 978-1-118-83496-1.
• Mundy, John H. (2000). Europe in the High Middle Ages 1150–1300 (3rd ed.). Columbia University. ISBN 978-0-582-36987-0.
• Murphy, James Bernard (2014). "Religious Violence: Myth or Reality? A Symposium on William T. Cavanaugh's The Myth of Religious Violence". Political Theology. 15 (6): 479–485. doi:10.1179/1462317X14Z.00000000093. S2CID 147458599.
• Nelson, Janet L. (2008). "Law and its applications". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 299–326. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.
• Nicholson, Graham (1960). "The Understanding of Papal Supremacy as revealed in the Letters of Pope Gregory the Great". Theological Studies. 11: 25–51.
• Noll, Mark A. (1997). Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Baker. ISBN 978-0-8010-5778-6. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• O'Collins, Gerald (2014). The Second Vatican Council: Message and Meaning (Repr. ed.). Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-8336-1.
• Olson, Roger E. (1999). The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition and Reform. Downer's Grove, IN: InterVarsity. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-8308-1505-0.
• Onnekink, David (2016). War and Religion after Westphalia, 1648–1713 (Repr. ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-00052-5.
• Palmer-Fernandes, Gabriel (1991). "Modern christian ethics". In Carman, John; Jürgensmeyer, Mark; Darrow, William (eds.). A Bibliographic Guide to the Comparative Study of Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-34448-7.
• Papaconstantinou, Arietta (2016). "Introduction". Conversion in Late Antiquity: Christianity, Islam, and Beyond. Routledge. pp. xv–xxxvii. ISBN 978-1-4094-5738-1.
• Patterson, Annabel (1997). Early modern liberalism (Illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59260-4.
• Pearson, Birger A. (2006). "Egypt". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Origins to Constantine. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 330–350. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.020. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.
• Pennington, K. (2007). "The growth of church law". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 386–402. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443.018. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Peters, Edward, ed. (1980). Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe. Pittsburgh: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1103-0.
• Phipps, W. E. (1988). "The origin of hospices/hospitals". Death Studies. 12 (2): 91–99. doi:10.1080/07481188808252226. PMID 10302347.
• Pintarić, Damir (16 November 2014). "Ecumenism – yes and/or no?". Kairos: Evangelical Journal of Theology. 8 (2): 175–186. ISSN 1846-4599. Archived from the original on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
• Pipes, Richard (1995). Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-679-76184-6. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Piron, Sylvain [in French] (2006). "Franciscan Quodlibeta in Southern Studia and at Paris, 1280–1300". In Schabel, Christopher (ed.). Theological Quodlibeta in the Middle Ages. Brill. pp. 403–438. ISBN 978-90-04-12333-5. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Porter, Stanley E.; Pitts, Andrew W., eds. (2018). "The Pre-citation Fallacy in New Testament Scholarship and Sanders's Tendencies of the Synoptic Tradition". Christian Origins and the Establishment of the Early Jesus Movement. Texts and Editions for New Testament Study. Vol. 12. Brill. pp. 89–107. doi:10.1163/9789004372740_007. ISBN 978-90-04-37274-0. LCCN 2018025547. S2CID 201462965.
• Pohl, Walter; Wood, Ian (2015). "Introduction". In Gantner, Clemens; McKitterick, Rosamond; Meeder, Sven (eds.). The Resources of the Past in Early Medieval Europe (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-09171-9.
• Pomeroy, Sarah (1995). "Women in the Bronze Age and Homeric Epic". Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken. ISBN 978-0-8052-1030-9.
• Ponce Herrero, Gabino; Martí Ciriquián, Pablo (2019). "El complejo urbano transfronterizo Melilla-Nador" (PDF). Investigaciones Geográficas (72). Alicante: San Vicente del Raspeig: 101–124. doi:10.14198/INGEO2019.72.05. hdl:10045/99969. ISSN 1989-9890. S2CID 213966829. Retrieved 26 June 2023.
• Pop, Ioan-Aurel (2009). "Romania and Romanians in Europe: A Historical Perspective". In Boari, Vasile; Gherghina, Sergiu (eds.). Weighting Differences: Romanian Identity in the Wider European Context. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-1215-3.
• Poppe, Andrzej (1991). "Christianity and Ideological change in Kievan Rus': The First Hundred Years". Canadian-American Slavic Studies. 25 (1–4): 3–26. doi:10.1163/221023991X00038.
• Porter, Stanley E. (2011). "Early Apocryphal Non-Gospel Literature and the New Testament Text" (PDF). Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism. 8: 192–198. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2023.
• Praet, Danny (1992). "Explaining the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Older theories and recent developments". Sacris Erudiri. Jaarboek voor Godsdienstgeschiedenis. A Journal on the Inheritance of Early and Medieval Christianity. 23: 5–119.
• Radić, Radmilla (2010). "11:Serbian Christianity". In Parry, Ken (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9.
• Rahner, Hugo (2013). Church and State in Early Christianity. Ignatius. ISBN 978-1-68149-099-1.
• Rankin, David (2017). "Arianism". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• Rapp, Stephen H. Jr. (2007). "Chapter 7 – Georgian Christianity". In Parry, Ken (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9.
• Rappaport, Helen (13 December 1999). Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-084-0. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Rauschenbusch, Walter (1917). Theology for the Social Gospel. Macmillan. LCCN 17031090. OCLC 1085604908.
• Rawlings, Helen (2006). The Spanish Inquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20599-9.
• Rives, J. B. (1999). "The Decree of Decius and the Religion of Empire". The Journal of Roman Studies. 89: 135–154. doi:10.2307/300738. JSTOR 300738. S2CID 159942854.
• Robbins, Joel (October 2004). Brenneis, Don; Strier, Karen B. (eds.). "The Globalization of Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity". Annual Review of Anthropology. 33: 117–143. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093421. ISSN 1545-4290. JSTOR 25064848. S2CID 145722188.
• Robert, Dana L. (April 2000). Hastings, Thomas J. (ed.). "Shifting Southward: Global Christianity Since 1945". International Bulletin of Missionary Research. 24 (2). Princeton Theological Seminary Overseas Ministries Study Center: 50–58. doi:10.1177/239693930002400201.
• Robert, Dana L. (2009). Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion (Illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-23619-1.
• Roberts, C. H. (1949). "The Christian Book and the Greek Papyri". The Journal of Theological Studies. 50 (199/200): 155–68. doi:10.1093/jts/os-L.2.155. JSTOR 23954151.
• Robinson, W. Stitt (May 1952). "Indian Education and Missions in Colonial Virginia". The Journal of Southern History. 18 (2): 152–168. doi:10.2307/2954270. JSTOR 2954270.
• Rose, E. M. (2015). The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-021962-8.
• Rosenthal, Judah M. (1956). "The Talmud on Trial: The Disputation at Paris in the Year 1240". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 47 (1): 58–76. doi:10.2307/1453186. JSTOR 1453186.
• Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2014). A Short History of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1 (fourth ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0611-1.
• Rossino, Alexander B. (2003). Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity (Rev. ed.). University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1392-2.
• Rousseau, Philip (2017). "Inheriting the fifth century: Who bequeathed what?". In Allen, Pauline; Jeffreys, Elizabeth (eds.). The Sixth Century: End or Beginning?. Brill. ISBN 978-18-64-20074-4.
• Rubenson, Samuel (2007). "Asceticism and monasticism, I: Eastern". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 637–668. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443.029. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (2009). "Introduction". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05602-1.
• Rüegg, Walter (1992). "Foreword. The University as a European Institution". In de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde (ed.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. pp. xix–xx. ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
• Rummel, Eric O. (2006). "The Albigensian Crusade: A Historiographical Essay" (PDF). Perspectives on History. XXI: 45–57. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
• Sabo, Theodore (2018). From Monophysitism to Nestorianism: AD 431–681. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-0959-7.
• Sághy, Marianne; Schoolman, Edward M. (2017). Pagans and Christians in the Late Roman Empire: New Evidence, New Approaches (4th–8th centuries). Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-386-256-8.
• Salzman, Michele Renee (2002). The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00641-6.
• Salzman, Michele Renee (1993). "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 42 (3). Franz Steiner Verlag: 362–378. JSTOR 4436297.
• Salzman, Michelle Renee (2021). The Falls of Rome: Crises, Resilience, and Resurgence in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11142-4.
• Sanmark, Alexandra (2004). Power and Conversion. A Comparative Study of Christianization in Scandinavia. The University of Uppsala. ISBN 978-91-506-1739-9.
• Sanneh, Lamin O. (2007). Disciples of all nations: Pillars of world Christianity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1980-4084-2.
• Sanneh, Lamin O. (2016). "Bible Translation, Culture, and Religion". In Sanneh, Lamin; McClymond, Michael (eds.). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to World Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 263–281. ISBN 978-1-118-55604-7.
• Saradi-Mendelovici, Helen (1990). "Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 44: 47–61. doi:10.2307/1291617. JSTOR 1291617.
• Schacter, Jacob J. (2011). Carlebach, Elisheva; Schacter, Jacob J. (eds.). New Perspectives on Jewish-Christian Relations: In Honor of David Berger. Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-9-00422-118-5.
• Schäferdiek, Knut (2007). "Germanic and Celtic Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–69. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Schaff, Philip (1953). History of the Christian Church. Vol. IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590–1073. CCEL. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-1-61025-043-6.
• Schaltegger, Christoph A.; Torgler, Benno (1 May 2010). "Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital" (PDF). Economics Letters. 107 (2): 99–101. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2023.
• Schott, Jeremy M. (2008). Christianity, Empire, and the Making of Religion in Late Antiquity. University of Philadelphia Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4092-4.
• Schumpeter, Joseph (1954). History of Economic Analysis. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-415-10888-1.
• Schwartz, Seth (9 February 2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
• Seagrave, S. Adam (2009). "Cicero, Aquinas, and Contemporary Issues in Natural Law Theory". The Review of Metaphysics. 62 (3): 491–523. JSTOR 40387823.
• Shatzmiller, Joseph (1974). "Review of 'Medieval Jewry in Northern France: A Political and Social History', by Robert Chazan". Jewish Social Studies (Book review). 36 (3): 339. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
• Shoemaker, Stephen J. (2016). Mary in Early Christian Faith and Devotion. Yale University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-300-21953-1.
• Sedlar, Jean W. (1995). "King Saint Stephen of Hungary. By György Györffy. Trans. Peter Doherty". Slavic Review (Book review). 54 (4): 1119–1120. doi:10.2307/2501480. JSTOR 2501480. S2CID 165113730.
• Seifrid, Mark A. (1992). "'Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument". Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme. Novum Testamentum, Supplements. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-09521-2. ISSN 0167-9732.
• Segovia, Fernando F.; Moore, Stephen D. (2007). "Introduction". In Segovia, Fernando F.; Moore, Stephen D. (eds.). Postcolonial Biblical Criticism: Interdisciplinary Intersections (Rev. ed.). A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-04530-0.
• Shahar, Shulamith (2003). The Fourth Estate A History of Women in the Middle Ages. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-39420-3.
• Sharpe, Richard (1995). Life of St Columba. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-140-44462-9.
• Shaw, Teresa M. (2017). "Sex and Sexual Renunciation I". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• Shepard, J. (2006). "The Byzantine Commonwealth 1000–1550". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5: Eastern Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–52. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.
• Shlikhta, Natalia (September 2004). "'Greek Catholic'–'Orthodox'–'Soviet': a symbiosis or a conflict of identitites?" (PDF). Religion, State and Society. 32 (3): 261–273. doi:10.1080/0963749042000252214. S2CID 144374454. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
• Simpson, W. Douglas (1940). Saint Ninian and the Origins of the Christian Church in Scotland. Oliver and Boyd.
• Skocpol, Theda; Trimberger, Ellen Kay (1977). "Revolutions and the world-historical development of capitalism". Berkeley Journal of Sociology. 22: 101–113. JSTOR 41035248.
• Skiles, William S. (2017). "Protests from the Pulpit: The Confessing Church and the Sermons of World War II". Sermon Studies. 1 (1): 1–23. ISSN 2689-5625. Archived from the original on 31 October 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
• Siker, Jeffrey S. (2017). "The Second and Third centuries". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• Smith, John Howard (2014). The First Great Awakening: Redefining Religion in British America, 1725–1775 (reprint ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-61147-715-3.
• Southern, Patricia (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49694-6.
• Southern, Sir Richard (2016). The Penguin History of the Church: Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages (Repr. ed.). Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-196873-5.
• Spater, Jeremy; Tranvik, Isak (1 November 2019). "The Protestant Ethic Reexamined: Calvinism and Industrialization". Comparative Political Studies. 52 (13–14): 1963–1994. doi:10.1177/0010414019830721. ISSN 0010-4140. S2CID 204438351.
• Štefan, Ivo (2022). "6". In Curta, Florin (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of East, Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1300. Routledge. pp. 101–120. ISBN 978-0-367-22655-8.
• Stewart, Alistair C. (2014). The Original Bishops: Office and Order in the First Christian Communities. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-1-4412-4570-0.
• Stewart, Colomba (2017). "Monasticism". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• Stroumsa, Guy (2007). "Religious dynamics between Christians and Jews in late antiquity (312–640)". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 149–172. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Strout, Shawn (2016). "Jesus' Table Fellowship, Baptism, and the Eucharist". Anglican Theological Review. 98 (3). Sage: 479–494. doi:10.1177/000332861609800303.
• Swanson, Robert (2021). "Medieval Anticlericalism: Terms and Conditions". History of Religions. 61 (1). The University of Chicago Press: 1–135. doi:10.1086/714917. S2CID 237618411.
• Táíwò, Olúfémi (2010). How Colonialism Preempted Modernity in Africa. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35374-0.
• Tapie, Matthew (2017). "Christ, Torah, and the Faithfulness of God: The Concept of Supersessionism in "The Gifts and the Calling"". Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations. 12 (1). doi:10.6017/scjr.v12i1.9802.
• Tarver, Micheal; Slape, Emily (2016). "Christianos Nuevos". In Tarver, Micheal; Slape, Emily (eds.). The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. pp. 210–212. ISBN 978-1-4408-4570-3. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
• Taylor, Molly E. (2021). "Eschatology and Exile: The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century". Bishop Street: Student Journal of Theological Studies. 109.
• Taylor, Rabun (1996). "A Literary and Structural Analysis of the First Dome on Justinian's Hagia Sophia, Constantinople". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 55 (1): 66–78. doi:10.2307/991056. JSTOR 991056.
• Testa, Judith Anne (1998). "10, The Christian Catacombs". Rome is Love Spelled Backward (Roma Amor): Enjoying Art and Architecture in the Eternal City. Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-87580-576-4.
• Thiessen, Matthew (September 2014). Breytenbach, Cilliers; Thom, Johan (eds.). "Paul's Argument against Gentile Circumcision in Romans 2:17–29". Novum Testamentum. 56 (4). Leiden: Brill Publishers: 373–391. doi:10.1163/15685365-12341488. eISSN 1568-5365. ISSN 0048-1009. JSTOR 24735868.
• Thomas, Charles (1997). "Evidence for Christianity in Roman Britain. The Small Finds. By CF Mawer. BAR British Series 243. Tempus Reparatum, Oxford, 1995. Pp. vi+ 178, illus. ISBN 0-8605-4789-2". Britannia (Book review). 28: 506–507. doi:10.2307/526801. JSTOR 526801. S2CID 191997942.
• Thompson, Glen L. (28 June 2012). "Constantius II and the first removal of the Altar of Victory". In Aubert, Jean-Jacques; Várhelyi, Zsuzsanna (eds.). A Tall Order. Writing the Social History of the Ancient World: Essays in honor of William V. Harris (illustrated ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-093141-9.
• Thompson, James Westfall (2016). "The Papacy and the War of investiture". History of the Middle Ages 300–1500. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-21700-8.
• Tilley, Maureen (2006). "North Africa". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 380–396. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021.
• Tov, Emanuel (2014). "The Myth of the Stabilization of the Text of Hebrew Scripture". In Martín-Contreras, Elvira; Miralles Maciá, Lorena (eds.). The Text of the Hebrew Bible: From the Rabbis to the Masoretes. Journal of Ancient Judaism: Supplements. Vol. 103. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 37–46. doi:10.13109/9783666550645.37. ISBN 978-3-525-55064-9.
• Trebilco, Paul Raymond (2017). Outsider Designations and Boundary Construction in the New Testament: Early Christian Communities and the Formation of Group Identity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-31132-8.
• Trevett, Christine (2006). "Asia Minor and Achaea". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1. pp. 314–329. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.019. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.
• Trombley, Frank (2007). "Christianity and paganism, II: Asia Minor". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 189–209. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
• Truran, Margaret (2000). "Benedictine Thought". In Hastings, Adrian; Mason, Alistair; Pyper, Hugh S. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4.
• Tulloch, Janet (2004). "Art and Archaeology as an Historical Resource for the Study of Women in Early Christianity: An Approach for Analyzing Visual Data". Feminist Theology. 12 (3): 277–304. doi:10.1177/096673500401200303. S2CID 145361724.
• Tyerman, Christopher (1992). "Who went on Crusades to the Holy Land?". In Ḳedar, Benjamin Z. (ed.). The Horns of Hattin Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, Jerusalem and Haifa, 2–6 July, 1987. University of Michigan. pp. 13–26.
• Ullmann, Walter (2005). A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-34952-6.
• Ullmann, W. (1965). "The Papacy as an Institution of Government in the Middle Ages". Studies in Church History. 2 (2): 78–101. doi:10.1017/S0424208400005131.
• Religious Persecution in the Soviet Union. United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East. 1985. p. 129. OCLC 09342826.
• Van Engen, John (1986). "The Christian Middle Ages as an Historiographical Problem". The American Historical Review. 91 (3): 519–52. doi:10.2307/1869130. JSTOR 1869130.
• Van Engen, John H. (2008). "Conclusion: Christendom, c. 1100". In Noble, T. F. X.; Smith, J. M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 625–643. ISBN 978-1-139-05422-5.
• Van Engen, John (2018). "The Church in the Fifteenth Century". In Oberman, Heiko; Brady, Thomas A.; Tracy, James D. (eds.). Handbook of European History 1400-1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation. Vol. I: Structures and Assertions. Brill. pp. 305–330. ISBN 978-90-04-39165-9.
• Vaughn, Sally N. (1980). "St Anselm and the English investiture controversy reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History. 6 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1016/0304-4181(80)90028-7.
• Verger, Jacques (1995). "The Universities and Scholasticism". In McKitterick, Rosamond; Abulafia, David (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 5, c.1198–c.1300. Cambridge University Press. pp. 256–276. ISBN 978-0-521-36289-4. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
• Vlach, Michael J. (2010). Has the Church Replaced Israel? A Theological Evaluation. B&H. ISBN 978-0-8054-4972-3.
• Vlasto, A. P. (1970). The entry of the Slavs into Christendom: an introduction to the medieval. Cambridge University Press Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-07459-9. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
• Walters, Philip (10 November 2005). "A survey of Soviet religious policy". In Ramet, Sabrina (ed.). Religious Policy in the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–30. ISBN 978-0-521-41643-6.
• Ward, W. (2006). "Evangelical awakenings in the North Atlantic world". In Brown, Stewart; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. pp. 329–347. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.019. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.
• Weber, Max; Kalberg, Stephen (2012) [1905]. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-338-5.
• Weitzmann, Kurt (1979). Weitzmann, Kurt (ed.). Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century (Illustrated ed.). Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-179-0.
• Welch, John W.; Pulham, Kathryn Worlton (2000). "Reviewed work: The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries, RODNEY STARK". Brigham Young University Studies. 39 (3): 197–204. JSTOR 43044187.
• Westcott, Brooke Foss (2005). A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-7252-1423-1.
• Whalen, Brett Edward (2015). "The Papacy". In Swanson, R. N. (ed.). The Routledge History of Medieval Christianity: 1050–1500 (Illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66014-3.
• White, L. Michael (2017). "Early Christian Architecture the first five centuries". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-19935-1.
• White, Lynn Townsend (1978). Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03566-9.
• Wilken, Robert Louis (2013). The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11884-1. JSTOR j.ctt32bd7m.5. S2CID 160590164. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
• Wilkins, Steve (2017). Christian Ethics: Four Views. IVP Academic. ISBN 978-0-8308-4023-6.
• Williams, George Huntston (1995). The Radical Reformation (3rd ed.). Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-09134-1.
• Witte, John Jr. (1997). From Sacrament to Contract Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25543-5.
• Wogaman, J. Philip (2011). Christian Ethics A Historical Introduction. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 978-0-664-23409-6.
• Wood, Cindy (2016). Studying Late Medieval History A Thematic Approach. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-21120-4.
• Woods, Thomas Jr.; Canizares, Antonio (2012). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Regnery. ISBN 978-1-59698-328-1.
• Wright, David (2012). "The Persistence of Pagan Art Patronage in Fifth-Century Rome". In Sevcenko, Ihor; Hutter, Irmgard (eds.). AETOS: Studies in Honour of Cyril Mango presented to him on April 14, 1998 (reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-095861-4.
• Wylen, Stephen M. (1995). The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-3610-0.
• Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–34. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.
• Zachariadou, Elizabeth (2006). "The Great Church in captivity 1453–1586". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–186. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.009. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.
• Zagorin, Perez (2003). How the Idea of Religious Toleration Came to the West (Repr. ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09270-6.
• Zurlo, Gina A. (2020). "A Demographic Profile of Christianity in East and Southeast Asia". In Ross, Kenneth R.; Alvarez, Francis D.; Johnson, Todd M. (eds.). Christianity in East and Southeast Asia (Illustrated ed.). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-5162-8.

Encyclopedia & web sources

• "Why the Chinese government is targeting young Christians in its latest crackdown". America magazine. 14 May 2018. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
• "pentarchy". Encyclopedia Britannica. Britannica. 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
• "Dei verbum". www.vatican.va. Archived from the original on 31 May 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
• Fahmy, Dalia (2022). "How U.S. religious composition has changed in recent decades". Modeling the Future of America in American Religion. Pew. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
• Hackett, Conrad; McClendon, David (5 April 2017). "Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 12 September 2024.
• Halsall, Paul (2021) [1996]. "Medieval Sourcebook: Iconoclastic Council, 754 – Epitome of the definition of the iconoclastic Conciliabulum, held in Constantinople, A.D. 754". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. New York: Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies at the Fordham University. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
• Hebron, M. (2022). "Patronage in the Renaissance". In Sgarbi, M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy. Springer. pp. 2446–2449. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-14169-5_1150. ISBN 978-3-319-14168-8.
• Herlihy, David (6 June 2023). "The emergence of modern Europe, 1500–1648/Aspects of early modern society". Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
• Heyrman, Christine Leigh (n.d.). "The First Great Awakening". Teacher Serve Divining America Religion in America. National Humanities Center. Archived from the original on 3 August 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Hudson, Miles (22 May 2023). "Fall of Constantinople". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2023.
• Hughes, Richard T. (2004). "Restoration, Historical Models of". In Foster, Douglas A.; Dunnavant, Anthony L. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 635–638. ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8.
• Jan Pelikan, Jaroslav (13 August 2022). Christianity. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
• Kampling, Rainer (2005). "Deicide". In Levy, Richard S. (ed.). Antisemitism An Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution. Oxford: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-439-4.
• Lorenzetti, Jennifer (19 January 2023). "Filioque History & Controversy What is the Filioque Clause?". Study.com. Archived from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
• MacCulloch (2010). A History of Christianity (Television production). BBC Four. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
• Monter, William (2023). "Witch Trials, Europe". Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Culture Society History. Archived from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023 – via Encyclopedia.com.
• Murphy, Caryle (2 June 2015). "Interfaith marriage is common in U.S., particularly among the recently wed". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
• Neusner, J. (1972). "Judaism in a time of crisis: Four responses to the destruction of the second temple". ProQuest 1304353371. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
• Noll, Mark (2009). "Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"" (PDF). The Biologos Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
• Nowell, Charles E.; Magdoff, Harry; Webster, Richard A. (13 November 2022). "Western colonialism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
• O'Connell, Erin (12 April 2006). "The New Face of Global Christianity: The Emergence of 'Progressive Pentecostalism'". Pew Research Center religion. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
• Ostling, Richard (24 June 2001). "Cross meets Kremlin". Time. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007.
• Parker, N. Geoffrey (2023). "The emergence of modern Europe, 1500–1648". The Wars of Religion. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J., eds. (2020). "All Religions (global totals)". World Religion Database. Leiden, Boston: BRILL, Boston University.
• "Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population". Pew Research Center religion. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2023.
• "Quinisext Council". Encyclopedia Britannica. Brittanica. 17 June 2008. Retrieved 27 September 2024. The Western Church and the Pope were not represented at the council. Justinian, however, wanted the Pope as well as the Eastern bishops to sign the canons. Pope Sergius I (687–701) refused to sign, and the canons were never fully accepted by the Western Church
• "Religion in Africa 2022". Find Easy population & more. 26 October 2022. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
• "Understanding the rapid rise of Charismatic Christianity in Southeast Asia". cmp.smu.edu.sg. Singapore Management University. 27 October 2017. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
• Sullivan, Patricia (26 November 2006). "Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa". The Washington Post. p. C09. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
• "The German churches and the Nazi state". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
• Valkenburgh, Sarah (1994). "A Dramatic Revival: The first great awakening in Connecticut" (PDF). schoolinfosystem.org. The Concord Review. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
• Yoo, Wonji (2019). "The making of god's subject: Christian conversion and urban youth in china". ProQuest. University of Pittsburgh. ProQuest 2279903082. Retrieved 1 November 2024. recent Chinese converts in Beijing seem to be mainly young people. In her study on churches in Beijing, Gao Shining (2005) points out that Christians under 35 accounted for 39% of Beijing's Christian population until 1990s, but the number increased by 70% in 2000s. Moreover, a survey of college students at Renmin University of China in Beijing shows that 61.5% of respondents were interested in Christianity (Goossaert and Palmer 2011). See – Page 27 Footnote 7

External links

The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:

• Historical Christianity: The Ancient Communal Faith: Print, ebook, and audiobook
• History of Christianity Reading Room: Archived 28 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Church as an Institution
• Sketches of Church History From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A., Canon of Canterbury
• "Church History" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 330–45.
• A History of Christianity in 15 Objects online series in association with Faculty of Theology, Uni. of Oxford from September 2011

The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:

• American Religion Data Archive
• Historical Christianity, A timeline with references to the descendants of the early church.
• Reformation Timeline, A short timeline of the Protestant Reformation.
• Fourth-Century Christianity