Education

For other uses, see Education (disambiguation).

Education is a wide phenomenon that applies to all age groups and covers formal education (top row) as well as non-formal and informal education (bottom row).

Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits and manifests in various forms. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools, following a curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a structured approach but occurs outside the formal schooling system, while informal education entails unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels, including early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on teaching methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education, and on subjects, such as science education, language education, and physical education. Additionally, the term "education" can denote the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational phenomena.

The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking. These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education. Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms, equipping them with the skills necessary to become productive members of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements. International organizations, such as UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.

Many factors influence the success of education. Psychological factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often associated with discrimination. Other factors encompass access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parental involvement.

The primary academic field examining education is known as education studies. It delves into the nature of education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for enhancement. Education studies encompasses various subfields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education. Additionally, it explores topics such as comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education.

In prehistory, education primarily occurred informally through oral communication and imitation. With the emergence of ancient civilizations, the invention of writing led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a transition from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was largely accessible to elites and religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus increasing general literacy. In the 18th and 19th centuries, public education gained significance, paving the way for the global movement to provide primary education to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.

Definitions

Main article: Definitions of education

The term "education" originates from the Latin words educare, meaning "to bring up," and educere, meaning "to bring forth." The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process occurring during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated individuals resulting from this process. Furthermore, the term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning. Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices.

Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying specific features exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features of education, including imparting knowledge and understanding to the student, ensuring the process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally appropriate manner. While such precise definitions often characterize the most typical forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common types of education may occasionally fall outside their parameters. Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each other but need not share a set of essential features common to all. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent.

Evaluative or thick conceptions of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which offer a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives, which may encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally, and cultivating character traits such as kindness and honesty.

Various scholars emphasize the importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination. They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and question those beliefs. However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education when the child's mind is not yet fully developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific safety rules and hygiene practices.

Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the student's perspectives. Teacher-centered definitions emphasize the perspective and role of the teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate manner. On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze education based on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. It's also possible to consider definitions that incorporate both perspectives. In this approach, education is seen as a process of shared experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems.

Types

There are several classifications of education. One classification depends on the institutional framework, distinguishing between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification involves different levels of education based on factors such as the student's age and the complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, teaching method, medium used, and funding.

Formal, non-formal, and informal

Tutoring exemplifies non-formal education, whereas learning how to cook from one's parents falls under informal education.

The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The modern schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and progress, ranging from primary school to university. Formal education is usually overseen and regulated by the government and often mandated up to a certain age.

Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal schooling system, with non-formal education serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-formal education is organized, systematic, and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring, fitness classes, and participation in the scouting movement. Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning their first language from their parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing a dish together.

Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal education occurs within schools, non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented, such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of everyday routines. Additionally, there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic motivation, driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from the enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails. While the differentiation among the three types is generally clear, certain forms of education may not neatly fit into a single category.

In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred informally, with little distinction between educational activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a classroom, and adults commonly assumed the role of educators. However, informal education often proves insufficient for imparting large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the increasing significance of formal education throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from daily life. There was a greater emphasis on understanding general principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating specific behaviors.

Levels

Children in a Japanese kindergarten

Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education, maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as the student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8).

Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool education or nursery education, encompasses the period from birth until the commencement of primary school. It is designed to facilitate holistic child development, addressing physical, mental, and social aspects. Early childhood education is pivotal in fostering socialization and personality development, while also imparting fundamental skills in communication, learning, and problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare children for the transition to primary education. While preschool education is typically optional, in certain countries such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four.

Primary school classroom in Ethiopia

Primary (or elementary) education usually begins between the ages of five and seven and spans four to seven years. It has no additional entry requirements and aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential knowledge in subjects such as history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. Another objective is to facilitate personal development. Presently, primary education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending such schools.

Secondary education succeeds primary education and typically spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally divided into lower secondary education (such as middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (like high school, senior high school, or college, depending on the country). Lower secondary education usually requires the completion of primary school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to expand and deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on subject-specific curricula, and teachers often specialize in one or a few specific subjects. One of its goals is to acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts across various subjects, laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning. In certain instances, it may also incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training. Lower secondary education is compulsory in numerous countries across Central and East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it represents the final phase of compulsory education. However, mandatory lower secondary education is less common in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia.

A high school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in the United States

Upper secondary education typically commences around the age of 15, aiming to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge for employment or tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary education is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum encompasses a broader range of subjects, often affording students the opportunity to select from various options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such as a high school diploma, is frequently linked to successful completion of upper secondary education. Education beyond the secondary level may fall under the category of post-secondary non-tertiary education, which is akin to secondary education in complexity but places greater emphasis on vocational training to ready students for the workforce.

Students in a laboratory at Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, Russia

In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous with higher education, while in others, tertiary education encompasses a broader spectrum. Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its culmination results in an academic degree. Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral education. These levels often form a hierarchical structure, with the attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for higher ones. Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects, providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also known as undergraduate education, is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic credential known as a bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education and often involves independent research, normally in the form of a master's thesis. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation. More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation.

Successful completion of formal education typically leads to certification, a prerequisite for advancing to higher levels of education and entering certain professions. Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing a cheat sheet, poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students.

In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided free of charge. However, there are significant global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost. Conversely, in nations like the United States and Singapore, tertiary education often comes with high tuition fees, leading students to rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for students in developing countries, as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks.

Others

The academic literature explores various types of education, including traditional and alternative approaches. Traditional education encompasses long-standing and conventional schooling methods, characterized by teacher-centered instruction within a structured school environment. Regulations govern various aspects, such as the curriculum and class schedules.

Homeschooling represents one form of alternative education.

Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for schooling methods that diverge from the conventional traditional approach. These variances might encompass differences in the learning environment, curriculum content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student relationship. Characteristics of alternative schooling include voluntary enrollment, relatively modest class and school sizes, and customized instruction, fostering a more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment. This category encompasses various forms, such as charter schools and specialized programs catering to challenging or exceptionally talented students, alongside homeschooling and unschooling. Alternative education incorporates diverse educational philosophies, including Montessori schools, Waldorf education, Round Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools. Alternative education encompasses indigenous education, which emphasizes the preservation and transmission of knowledge and skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often employs traditional methods such as oral narration and storytelling. Other forms of alternative schooling include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition.

Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of education. Categories based on the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. Categories based on the biological sex of students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education. Special education is tailored to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities, addressing various impairments on intellectual, social, communicative, and physical levels. Its goal is to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments, providing affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. In the broadest sense, special education also encompasses education for intellectually gifted children, who require adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.

Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, where the teacher plays a central role in imparting information to students, and student-centered education, where students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities. In conscious education, learning and teaching occur with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without conscious planning or guidance. This may occur, in part, through the influence of teachers' and adults' personalities, which can indirectly impact the development of students' personalities. Evidence-based education employs scientific studies to determine the most effective educational methods. Its aim is to optimize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best available empirical evidence. This encompasses evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.

Autodidacticism, or self-education, occurs independently of teachers and institutions. Primarily observed in adult education, it offers the freedom to choose what and when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance may lead to aimless learning, while the absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely associated with lifelong education, which entails continuous learning throughout one's life.

Categories of education based on the subject encompass science education, language education, art education, religious education, physical education, and sex education. Special mediums such as radio or websites are utilized in distance education, including e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. Often, these take the form of open education, wherein courses and materials are accessible with minimal barriers, contrasting with traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not all forms of online education are open; for instance, some universities offer full online degree programs that are not part of open education initiatives.

State education, also known as public education, is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It typically does not require tuition fees and is therefore a form of free education. In contrast, private education is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees. A more detailed classification focuses on the social institutions responsible for education, such as family, school, civil society, state, and church.

Compulsory education refers to education that individuals are legally mandated to receive, primarily affecting children who must attend school up to a certain age. This stands in contrast to voluntary education, which individuals pursue based on personal choice rather than legal obligation.

Role in society

Highly specialized professionals, such as medical researchers, often undergo extensive education to master their fields and make significant contributions to society.

Education serves various roles in society, spanning social, economic, and personal domains. Socially, education establishes and maintains a stable society by imparting fundamental skills necessary for interacting with the environment and fulfilling individual needs and aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic, and proficiency in information and communications technology. Additionally, education facilitates socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social and cultural norms, shaping appropriate behavior across diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion, stability, and peace, fostering productive engagement in daily activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early childhood education holds particular significance. Moreover, education plays a pivotal role in democracies by enhancing civic participation through voting and organizing, while also promoting equal opportunities for all.

On an economic level, individuals become productive members of society through education, acquiring the technical and analytical skills necessary for their professions, as well as for producing goods and providing services to others. In early societies, there was minimal specialization, with children typically learning a broad range of skills essential for community functioning. However, modern societies are increasingly complex, with many professions requiring specialized training alongside general education. Consequently, only a relatively small number of individuals master certain professions. Additionally, skills and tendencies acquired for societal functioning may sometimes conflict, with their value dependent on context. For instance, fostering curiosity and questioning established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, while at times, obedience to authority is necessary to maintain social stability.

Higher educational attainment in the US corresponds with higher median household wealth.

By facilitating individuals' integration into society, education fosters economic growth and diminishes poverty. It enables workers to enhance their skills, thereby improving the quality of goods and services produced, which ultimately fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness. Public education is widely regarded as a long-term investment that benefits society as a whole, with primary education showing particularly high rates of return. Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity, education contributes to technological and scientific advancements, reduces unemployment, and promotes social equity. Moreover, increased education is associated with lower birth rates, partly due to heightened awareness of family planning, expanded opportunities for women, and delayed marriage.

Education plays a pivotal role in equipping a country to adapt to changes and effectively confront new challenges. It raises awareness and contributes to addressing contemporary global issues, including climate change, sustainability, and the widening disparities between the rich and the poor. By instilling in students an understanding of how their lives and actions impact others, education can inspire individuals to strive towards realizing a more sustainable and equitable world. Thus, education not only serves to maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst for social development. This extends to evolving economic circumstances, where technological advancements, notably increased automation, impose new demands on the workforce that education can help meet. As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge taught may become outdated, necessitating curriculum adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy, and promote proficiency in handling new technologies. Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms such as massive open online courses to prepare individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities.

On a more individual level, education fosters personal development, encompassing learning new skills, honing talents, nurturing creativity, enhancing self-knowledge, and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being. Educated individuals are often better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social support networks and coping strategies, and enjoy higher incomes, granting them access to superior healthcare services. The social significance of education is underscored by the annual International Day of Education on January 24, established by the United Nations, which designated 1970 as the International Education Year.

Role of institutions

Governmental institutions such as the Chinese Ministry of Education influence numerous aspects of public education.

Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple facets of education. Entities such as schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education comprise the education sector. They interact not only with one another but also with various stakeholders, including parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations, healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Numerous individuals are directly engaged in the education sector, such as students, teachers, school principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.

Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held, as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, such as infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.

International organizations, such as UNESCO, have wielded significant influence in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.

International organizations also play a pivotal role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education through various means. One of its activities is advocating for education policies, such as the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child, which declares education as a fundamental human right for all children and young people. The Education for All initiative aimed to provide basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by 2015, later succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals initiative, particularly goal 4. Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative.

Some influential organizations are non-governmental rather than intergovernmental. For instance, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges and universities worldwide, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services for teachers.

Factors of educational success

Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological factors related to the individual student, and sociological factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other.

Psychological

On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning. Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment. Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while maintaining a balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism.

Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of education. Intelligence is often closely associated with the concept of IQ, a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued that intelligence encompasses various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as mathematics, logic, spatial cognition, language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type while performing less well in another.

According to proponents of learning style theory, the preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities. Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers.

The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as conscientiousness and openness to experience, identified in the Big Five personality traits, are associated with academic success. Other mental factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.

Sociological

Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors encompass socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural background, and gender, drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and discrimination. Consequently, they play a pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact.

Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income, including financial security, social status, social class, and various attributes related to quality of life. Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family income. Limited access to information about higher education and challenges in securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate the situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and mental health, contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations.

Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit biases and discrimination against ethnic minorities further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not overtly racist, leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on a child's ethnicity.

Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the family, while women were expected to manage households and care for children, often limiting their access to education. Although these disparities have improved in many modern societies, gender differences persist in education. This includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects. In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as the severe restrictions imposed on female education by the Taliban in Afghanistan, and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system.

One facet of several social factors is characterized by the expectations linked to stereotypes. These expectations operate externally, influenced by how others respond to individuals belonging to specific groups, and internally, shaped by how individuals internalize and conform to them. In this regard, these expectations can manifest as self-fulfilling prophecies by affecting the educational outcomes they predict. Such outcomes may be influenced by both positive and negative stereotypes.

Technology and others

Technology plays a crucial role in educational success. While educational technology is often linked with modern digital devices such as computers, its scope extends far beyond that. It encompasses a diverse array of resources and tools for learning, including traditional aids like books and worksheets, in addition to digital devices.

Introducing children in Haiti to a One Laptop per Child device

Educational technology can enhance learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often serves as the primary source of information in the classroom, allowing teachers to allocate their time and energy to other tasks such as lesson planning, student guidance, and performance assessment. By presenting information using graphics, audio, and video instead of mere text, educational technology can also enhance comprehension. Interactive elements, such as educational games, further engage learners in the learning process. Moreover, technology facilitates the accessibility of educational materials to a wide audience, particularly through online resources, while also promoting collaboration among students and communication with teachers. The integration of artificial intelligence in education holds promise for providing new learning experiences to students and supporting teachers in their work. However, it also introduces new risks related to data privacy, misinformation, and manipulation. Various organizations advocate for student access to educational technologies, including initiatives such as the One Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project, and Pratham.

School infrastructure also plays a crucial role in educational success. It encompasses physical aspects such as the school's location, size, and available facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, appropriate classroom furniture, as well as access to a library and a canteen, all contribute to fostering educational success. Additionally, the quality of teachers significantly impacts student achievement. Skilled teachers possess the ability to motivate and inspire students, and tailor instructions to individual abilities and needs. Their skills depend on their own education, training, and teaching experience. A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the greatest impact on educational success.

Parent involvement also enhances achievement and can increase children's motivation and commitment when they know their parents are invested in their educational endeavors. This often results in heightened self-esteem, improved attendance rates, and more positive behavior at school. Parent involvement covers communication with teachers and other school staff to raise awareness of current issues and explore potential resolutions. Other relevant factors, occasionally addressed in academic literature, encompass historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.

Education studies

Main article: Education sciences

John Locke's book Some Thoughts Concerning Education from 1693 is a foundational work in education studies.

The primary field exploring education is known as education studies, also termed education sciences. It seeks to understand how knowledge is transmitted and acquired by examining various methods and forms of education. This discipline delves into the goals, impacts, and significance of education, along with the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that influence it. Education theorists draw insights from various disciplines, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Consequently, some argue that education studies lacks the clear methodological and subject delineations found in disciplines like physics or history. Education studies focuses on academic analysis and critical reflection and differs in this respect from teacher training programs, which show participants how to become effective teachers. Furthermore, it encompasses not only formal education but also explores all forms and facets of educational processes.

Various research methods are utilized to investigate educational phenomena, broadly categorized into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research mirrors the methodologies of the natural sciences, employing precise numerical measurements to collect data from numerous observations and utilizing statistical tools for analysis. Its goal is to attain an objective and impartial understanding. Conversely, qualitative research typically involves a smaller sample size and seeks to gain a nuanced insight into subjective and personal factors, such as individuals' experiences within the educational process. Mixed-methods research aims to integrate data gathered from both approaches to achieve a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data collection methods vary and may include direct observation, test scores, interviews, and questionnaires. Research projects may investigate fundamental factors influencing all forms of education or focus on specific applications, seek solutions to particular problems, or evaluate the effectiveness of educational initiatives and policies.

Subfields

Education studies encompasses various subfields such as pedagogy, educational research, comparative education, and the philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, and history of education. The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the fundamental assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education. It explores education both as a process and a discipline while seeking to provide precise definitions of its nature and distinctions from other phenomena. Additionally, it delves into the purpose of education, its various types, and the conceptualization of teachers, students, and their relationship. Furthermore, it encompasses educational ethics, which examines the moral implications of education, such as the ethical principles guiding it and how teachers should apply them to specific situations. The philosophy of education boasts a long history and was a subject of discourse in ancient Greek philosophy.

The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used interchangeably with education studies, but in a more specific sense, it refers to the subfield focused on teaching methods. It investigates how educational objectives, such as knowledge transmission or the development of skills and character traits, can be achieved. Pedagogy is concerned with the methods and techniques employed in teaching within conventional educational settings. While some definitions confine it to this context, in a broader sense, it encompasses all forms of education, including teaching methods beyond traditional school environments. In this broader context, it explores how teachers can facilitate learning experiences for students to enhance their understanding of the subject matter and how learning itself occurs.

The psychology of education delves into the mental processes underlying learning, focusing on how individuals acquire new knowledge and skills and experience personal development. It investigates the various factors influencing educational outcomes, how these factors vary among individuals, and the extent to which nature or nurture contribute to these outcomes. Key psychological theories shaping education encompass behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Related disciplines include educational neuroscience and the neurology of education, which explore the neuropsychological processes and changes associated with learning.

The field of sociology of education delves into how education shapes socialization, examining how social factors and ideologies influence access to education and individual success within it. It explores the impact of education on different societal groups and its role in shaping personal identity. Specifically, the sociology of education focuses on understanding the root causes of inequalities, offering insights relevant to education policy aimed at identifying and addressing factors contributing to inequality. Two prominent perspectives within this field are consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus theorists posit that education benefits society by preparing individuals for their societal roles, while conflict theorists view education as a tool employed by the ruling class to perpetuate inequalities.

The field of economics of education investigates the production, distribution, and consumption of education. It seeks to optimize resource allocation to enhance education, such as assessing the impact of increased teacher salaries on teacher quality. Additionally, it explores the effects of smaller class sizes and investments in new educational technologies. By providing insights into resource allocation, the economics of education aids policymakers in making decisions that maximize societal benefits. Furthermore, it examines the long-term economic implications of education, including its role in fostering a highly skilled workforce and enhancing national competitiveness. A related area of interest involves analyzing the economic advantages and disadvantages of different educational systems.

Comparative education utilizes tools like the Education Index to compare educational systems across various countries. High-scoring countries are depicted in green, while low-scoring ones are shown in red.

Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts education systems. Comparisons can occur from a general perspective or focus on specific factors like social, political, or economic aspects. Often applied to different countries, comparative education assesses the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices, evaluating the consequences of distinct approaches. It can be used to glean insights from other countries on effective education policies and how one's own system may be improved. This practice, known as policy borrowing, presents challenges as policy success can hinge on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A related and contentious topic concerns whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed ones. Other key topics include the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from authoritarian regimes to democracies.

The history of education delves into the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions. It explores various key processes, their potential causes and effects, and their interrelations.

Aims and ideologies

Propaganda poster in a primary school in North Korea. Authoritarian regimes frequently employ education as a tool for indoctrinating students.

A central topic in education studies revolves around how people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Various aims have been proposed, including the acquisition of knowledge and skills, personal development, and the cultivation of character traits. Commonly suggested attributes encompass qualities like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking, along with tendencies to think, feel, and act morally. Scholars diverge on whether to prioritize liberal values such as freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness, or qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith.

Some education theorists concentrate on a single overarching purpose of education, viewing more specific aims as means to this end. At a personal level, this purpose is often equated with assisting the student in leading a good life. Societally, education aims to cultivate individuals into productive members of society. There is debate regarding whether the primary aim of education is to benefit the educated individual or society as a whole.

Educational ideologies encompass systems of fundamental philosophical assumptions and principles utilized to interpret, understand, and assess existing educational practices and policies. They address various aspects beyond the aims of education, including the subjects taught, the structure of learning activities, the role of teachers, methods for assessing educational progress, and the design of institutional frameworks and policies. These ideologies are diverse and often interrelated. Teacher-centered ideologies prioritize the role of teachers in imparting knowledge to students, while student-centered ideologies afford students a more active role in the learning process. Process-based ideologies focus on the methods of teaching and learning, contrasting with product-based ideologies, which consider education in terms of the desired outcomes. Conservative ideologies uphold traditional practices, whereas Progressive ideologies advocate for innovation and creativity. Additional categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, pragmatism, as well as authoritarian and democratic ideologies.

Learning theories

Learning theories attempt to elucidate the mechanisms underlying learning. Influential theories include behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism posits that learning entails a modification in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This occurs through the presentation of a stimulus, the association of this stimulus with the desired response, and the reinforcement of this stimulus-response connection. Cognitivism views learning as a transformation in cognitive structures and emphasizes the mental processes involved in encoding, retrieving, and processing information. Constructivism asserts that learning is grounded in the individual's personal experiences and places greater emphasis on social interactions and their interpretation by the learner. These theories carry significant implications for instructional practices. For instance, behaviorists often emphasize repetitive drills, cognitivists may advocate for mnemonic techniques, and constructivists typically employ collaborative learning strategies.

Various theories suggest that learning is more effective when it is based on personal experience. Additionally, aiming for a deeper understanding by connecting new information to pre-existing knowledge is considered more beneficial than simply memorizing a list of unrelated facts. An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget, who outlines four stages of learning through which children progress on their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. These stages correspond to different levels of abstraction, with early stages focusing more on simple sensory and motor activities, while later stages involve more complex internal representations and information processing, such as logical reasoning.

Teaching methods

The teaching method pertains to how the content is delivered by the teacher, such as whether group work is employed rather than focusing on individual learning. There is a wide array of teaching methods available, and the most effective one in a given scenario depends on factors like the subject matter and the learner's age and level of competence. This is reflected in modern school systems, which organize students into different classes based on age, competence, specialization, and native language to ensure an effective learning process. Different subjects often employ distinct approaches; for example, language education frequently emphasizes verbal learning, while mathematical education focuses on abstract and symbolic thinking alongside deductive reasoning. One crucial aspect of teaching methodologies is ensuring that learners remain motivated, either through intrinsic factors like interest and curiosity or through external rewards.

The teaching method also includes the utilization of instructional media, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, as well as implementing some form of test or evaluation to gauge learning progress. Educational assessment is the process of documenting the student's knowledge and skills, which can happen formally or informally and may take place before, during, or after the learning activity. Another significant pedagogical element in many modern educational approaches is that each lesson is part of a broader educational framework governed by a syllabus, which often spans several months or years. According to Herbartianism, teaching is broken down into phases. The initial phase involves preparing the student's mind for new information. Subsequently, new ideas are introduced to the learner and then linked to concepts already familiar to them. In later phases, understanding transitions to a more general level beyond specific instances, and the ideas are then applied in practical contexts.

History

Main article: History of education

The history of education delves into the processes, methods, and institutions entwined with teaching and learning, aiming to elucidate their interplay and influence on educational practices over time.

Prehistory

Education during prehistory primarily facilitated enculturation, emphasizing practical knowledge and skills essential for daily life, such as food production, clothing, shelter, and safety. Formal schools and specialized instructors were absent, with adults in the community assuming teaching roles, and learning transpiring informally through daily activities, including observation and imitation of elders. In oral societies, storytelling served as a pivotal means of transmitting cultural and religious beliefs across generations. With the advent of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution around 9000 BCE, a gradual educational shift toward specialization ensued, driven by the formation of larger communities and the demand for increasingly intricate artisanal and technical skills.

Ancient era

Commencing in the 4th millennium BCE and spanning subsequent eras, a pivotal transformation in educational methodologies unfolded with the advent of writing in regions such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley, and ancient China. This breakthrough profoundly influenced the trajectory of education. Writing facilitated the storage, preservation, and dissemination of information, ushering in subsequent advancements such as the creation of educational aids like textbooks and the establishment of institutions such as schools.

Plato's Academy, depicted in a mosaic from Pompeii, is frequently regarded as the inaugural institution of higher education.

Another significant aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary as civilizations evolved and the volume of knowledge expanded, surpassing what informal education could effectively transmit across generations. Teachers assumed specialized roles to impart knowledge, leading to a more abstract educational approach less tied to daily life. Formal education remained relatively rare in ancient societies, primarily accessible to the intellectual elite. It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership, civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated with specific professions. Formal education introduced a new teaching paradigm that emphasized discipline and drills over the informal methods prevalent earlier. Two notable achievements of ancient education include the founding of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, often regarded as the earliest institution of higher learning, and the establishment of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt, renowned as one of the ancient world's premier libraries.

Medieval era

Bologna University in Italy, established in 1088 CE, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation.

Many facets of education during the medieval period were profoundly influenced by religious traditions. In Europe, the Catholic Church wielded considerable authority over formal education. In the Arab world, the rapid spread of Islam led to various educational advancements during the Islamic Golden Age, integrating classical and religious knowledge and establishing madrasa schools. In Jewish communities, yeshivas emerged as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and Jewish law. In China, an expansive state educational and examination system, shaped by Confucian teachings, was instituted. As new complex societies emerged in regions like Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan, some adopted existing educational practices, while others developed new traditions.

Additionally, this era witnessed the establishment of various institutes of higher education and research. Prominent among these were the University of Bologna (the world's oldest university in continuous operation), the University of Paris, and Oxford University in Europe. Other influential centers included the Al-Qarawiyyin University in Morocco, Al-Azhar University in Egypt, and the House of Wisdom in Iraq. Another significant development was the formation of guilds, associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who regulated their trades and provided vocational education. Prospective members underwent various stages of training on their journey to mastery.

Modern era

See also: Western education

The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy levels.

Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one that was more secular. This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs. The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the Age of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences. European colonization affected education in the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives. In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo-Confucianism. In the Islamic world, the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion. A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general literacy of the population.

These alterations paved the way for the advancement of public education during the 18th and 19th centuries. This era witnessed the establishment of publicly funded schools with the goal of providing education for all, in contrast to previous periods when formal education was primarily delivered by private schools, religious institutions, and individual tutors. An exception to this trend was the Aztec civilization, where formal education was compulsory for youth across social classes as early as the 14th century. Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.

Contemporary era

The promotion of public education and universal access to education gained momentum in the 20th and 21st centuries, endorsed by intergovernmental organizations such as the UN. Key initiatives included the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals. These endeavors led to a consistent increase in all forms of education, particularly impacting primary education. In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide were not enrolled in school; by 2015, this figure had decreased to 9%.

The establishment of public education was accompanied by the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the progress of students. Contemporary examples are the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which is a globally used test to assess language proficiency in non-native English speakers, and the Programme for International Student Assessment, which evaluates education systems across the world based on the performance of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and science. Similar shifts impacted teachers, with the establishment of institutions and norms to regulate and oversee teacher training, including certification mandates for teaching in public schools.

Emerging educational technologies have significantly influenced modern education. The widespread availability of computers and the internet has notably expanded access to educational resources and facilitated new forms of learning, such as online education. This became particularly pertinent during the COVID-19 pandemic when schools worldwide closed for prolonged periods, prompting many to adopt remote learning methods through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to sustain instruction. Additionally, contemporary education is impacted by the increasing globalization and internationalization of educational practices.

See also

• Criticism of schooling – Multiple positions critical of compulsory schooling laws
• Grade inflation – Awarding higher grades than deserved
• Glossary of education terms
• Index of education articles
• List of education articles by country
• List of countries by spending on education as percentage of GDP
• Outline of education – Overview of and topical guide to education

References

Sources

• Adarkwah, Michael Agyemang (2021). "A Strategic Approach to Onsite Learning in the Era of SARS-Cov-2". SN Computer Science. 2 (4): 258. doi:10.1007/s42979-021-00664-y. ISSN 2661-8907. PMC 8103427. PMID 33977278.
• Aitchison, David (2022). The School Story: Young Adult Narratives in the Age of Neoliberalism. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-3764-6. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
• Allen, Rebecca (2011). "The Economics of Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Anderson, Philip M. (2005). "3. The Meaning of Pedagogy". In Kincheloe, Joe L. (ed.). Classroom Teaching: An Introduction. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-7858-6.
• Ansari, D; Coch, D (2006). "Bridges Over Troubled Waters: Education and Cognitive Neuroscience". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 10 (4): 146–151. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.007. ISSN 1364-6613. PMID 16530462. S2CID 8328331.
• APA staff. "Education and Socioeconomic Status". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
• Aqil, Moulay Driss; Babekri, El Hassane; Nadmi, Mustapha (25 June 2020). "Morocco: Contributions to Mathematics Education From Morocco". In Vogeli, Bruce R.; Tom, Mohamed E. A. El (eds.). Mathematics And Its Teaching In The Muslim World. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-314-679-2. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• Archer, Louise; Francis, Becky (2006). Understanding Minority Ethnic Achievement: Race, Gender, Class and 'Success'. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19246-5. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Archer, R. L. (2013). Contributions to the History of Education: Volume 5, Secondary Education in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-62232-6. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Aron, Laudan Y. (2006). An Overview of Alternative Education. Urban Institute. OCLC 137744041. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Arquisola, M. J. (20 October 2020). "Can Indonesian Educational Leaders Respond to Rapid Contextual Changes in a Digital Age? A Narrative of Issues and Challenges". In Priyana, Joko; Triastuti, Anita; Putro, Nur Hidayanto Pancoro Setyo (eds.). Teacher Education and Professional Development In Industry 4.0: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Teacher Education and Professional Development (InCoTEPD 2019), 13–14 November, 2019, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-000-29017-2. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
• Atienza, Melflor (2010). "8. Strategies in Teaching Large Groups". In Sana, Erlyn (ed.). Teaching and Learning in the Health Sciences. UP Press. ISBN 978-971-542-573-5. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Barr, Robert D.; Parrett, William H. (2003b). "Alternative Schooling". In Guthrie, James W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Education. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865594-9. Archived from the original on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Barrett, Peter; Treves, Alberto; Shmis, Tigran; Ambasz, Diego (2019). The Impact of School Infrastructure on Learning: A Synthesis of the Evidence. World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-1-4648-1378-8. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bartlett, Steve; Burton, Diana (2003). Education Studies: Essential Issues. Sage. ISBN 978-0-7619-4049-4.
• Bartlett, Steve; Burton, Diana (2007). Introduction to Education Studies (2nd ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-4129-2193-0.
• Bartram, Brendan (2009). "Comparative Education". In Warren, Sue (ed.). An Introduction to Education Studies: The Student Guide to Themes and Contexts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9920-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bastid, Marianne (14 July 2021). "Servitude or Liberation? The Introduction of Foreign Educational Practices and Systems to Chine from 1850 to the Present". In Hayhoe, Ruth; Bastid, Marianne (eds.). Routledge Library Editions: Education in Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-37876-5. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
• Bearman, Margaret (2005). "Factors Affecting Health Professional Education". In Brown, Ted; Williams, Brett (eds.). Evidence-Based Education in the Health Professions: Promoting Best Practice in the Learning and Teaching of Students. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN 978-1-910227-70-1. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Beatty, Barbara (2019). "Conflicting Constructions of Childhood and Children in Education History". In Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-934003-3. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (5 February 2018). A History of Babylon, 2200 BC – AD 75. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-8898-2.
• Bécares, Laia; Priest, Naomi (2015). "Understanding the Influence of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Class on Inequalities in Academic and Non-Academic Outcomes Among Eighth-Grade Students: Findings From an Intersectionality Approach". PLOS ONE. 10 (10): e0141363. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041363B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141363. PMC 4624767. PMID 26505623.
• Beckett, Kelvin (2018). "John Dewey's Conception of Education: Finding Common Ground With R. S. Peters and Paulo Freire". Educational Philosophy and Theory. 50 (4): 380–389. doi:10.1080/00131857.2017.1365705. ISSN 0013-1857. S2CID 148998580.
• Beckett, Kelvin Stewart (2011). "R. S. Peters and the Concept of Education". Educational Theory. 61 (3): 239–255. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2011.00402.x.
• Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law: Including a Systematic Analysis of Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Brill. ISBN 978-90-474-1754-5. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Bennett, Pip (2023). "Lessons from Ubuntu for Moral Education". In Hebert, David G. (ed.). Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education. Springer Nature Singapore. pp. 107–122. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-0139-5_7. ISBN 978-981-99-0139-5. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
• Berry, Billingsley (2016). "How Students View the Boundaries Between Their Science and Religious Education Concerning the Origins of Life and the Universe". Science Education. 100 (3): 459–482. Bibcode:2016SciEd.100..459B. doi:10.1002/sce.21213. PMC 5067621. PMID 27812226.
• Bhalotra, Sonia; Harttgen, Kenneth; Klasen, Stephan. "The Impact of school fees on educational attainment and the intergenerational transmission of education". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
• Biesta, Gert (2015). "What Is Education For? On Good Education, Teacher Judgement, and Educational Professionalism". European Journal of Education. 50 (1): 75–87. doi:10.1111/ejed.12109. Archived from the original on 18 December 2023. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
• Biletzki, Anat; Matar, Anat (2021). "Ludwig Wittgenstein: 3.4 Language-games and Family Resemblance". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
• Blaug, M. (2014). Economics of Education: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-4831-8788-4. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bonvillian, William B.; Sarma, Sanjay E. (2 February 2021). Workforce Education: A New Roadmap. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-04488-2. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
• Bowen, James; Gelpi, Ettore; Anweiler, Oskar (2023). "Education". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bowker, John (1 January 2003). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7.
• Briggs, A. (12 October 2012). "The Study of the History of Education". In Gordon, Peter; Szreter, R. (eds.). The History of Education: The Making of a Discipline. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-22407-2. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
• Brighouse, Harry (2009). "Moral and Political Aims of Education". The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education. Oxford University Press. pp. 35–51. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.003.0003. ISBN 978-0-19-531288-1. Archived from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Brown, Ted; Williams, Brett (2005). "Introduction". In Brown, Ted; Williams, Brett (eds.). Evidence-Based Education in the Health Professions: Promoting Best Practice in the Learning and Teaching of Students. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN 978-1-910227-70-1. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Browne, Ken (2011). An Introduction to Sociology. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-5008-1. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bryant, Napoleon A. (2001). "Make the Curriculum". Science Learning for All: Celebrating Cultural Diversity. NSTA Press. ISBN 978-0-87355-194-6.
• Buckner, Elizabeth (2019). "The Internationalization of Higher Education: National Interpretations of a Global Model". Comparative Education Review. 63 (3): 315–336. doi:10.1086/703794. S2CID 198608127.
• Bukoye, Roseline Olufunke (2019). "Utilization of Instruction Materials as Tools for Effective Academic Performance of Students: Implications for Counselling". The 2nd Innovative and Creative Education and Teaching International Conference. Vol. 2. MDPI. p. 1395. doi:10.3390/proceedings2211395.
• Bullard, Julie; Hitz, Randy (1997). "Early Childhood Education and Adult Education: Bridging the Cultures". Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education. 18 (1): 15–22. doi:10.1080/10901029708549133. ISSN 1090-1027.
• Burman, Eva; Cooper, Maxine; Ling, Lorraine; Stephenson, Joan (2005). Values in Education. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-72831-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Burroughs, Nathan; Gardner, Jacqueline; Lee, Youngjun; Guo, Siwen; Touitou, Israel; Jansen, Kimberly; Schmidt, William (2019). "A Review of the Literature on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes". Teaching for Excellence and Equity. IEA Research for Education. Vol. 6. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16151-4_2. ISBN 978-3-030-16151-4. S2CID 187326800.
• Butler, S.; Marsh, H.; Sheppard, J. (1985). "Seven Year Longitudinal Study of the Early Prediction of Reading Achievement". Journal of Educational Psychology. 77 (3): 349–361. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.77.3.349.
• Chazan, Barry (2022). "What is "Education"?". Principles and Pedagogies in Jewish Education. Springer International Publishing. pp. 13–21. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83925-3_3. ISBN 978-3-030-83925-3. S2CID 239896844.
• Chimombo, Joseph (2005). "Issues in Basic Education in Developing Countries: An Exploration of Policy Options for Improved Delivery" (PDF). Journal of International Cooperation in Education. 8 (1). doi:10.15027/34225. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2018.
• Chou, Chih-Yueh; Zou, Nian-Bao (2020). "An Analysis of Internal and External Feedback in Self-Regulated Learning Activities Mediated by Self-Regulated Learning Tools and Open Learner Models". International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education. 17 (1). doi:10.1186/s41239-020-00233-y. S2CID 229550927.
• Cizek, Gregory J. (1999). Cheating on Tests: How To Do It, Detect It, and Prevent It. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-67251-5. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
• Claire, Shewbridge; Marian, Hulshof; Deborah, Nusche; Louise, Stoll (2011). OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: School Evaluation in the Flemish Community of Belgium 2011. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-11672-6. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Close, Paul (2014). Child Labour in Global Society. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78350-780-1. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Cobb, Casey D.; Glass, Gene V. (2021). Public and Private Education in America: Examining the Facts. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-6375-2. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Cohen, Louis; Manion, Lawrence; Morrison, Keith (2018). Research Methods in Education (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-45652-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Collins staff. "Private Education". Collin's English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• Cook, Bryan G.; Tankersley, Melody; Landrum, Timothy J. (2013). Evidence-Based Practices. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78190-430-5. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Coombs, Jerrold R. (1998). "Educational Ethics: Are We on the Right Track?". Educational Theory. 48 (4): 555–569. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1998.00555.x.
• Corbridge, Stuart; Harriss, John; Jeffrey, Craig (3 April 2013). India Today: Economy, Politics and Society. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7456-7664-7. Retrieved 14 December 2023.
• Cordasco, Francesco (1976). A Brief History of Education: A Handbook of Information on Greek, Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern Educational Practice. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8226-0067-1. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Cosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2009). Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, 3-Volume Set. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0907-7.
• Craver, Samuel M.; Philipsen, Maike Ingrid (30 June 2011). Foundations of Education: Problems and Possibilities in American Education. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-4411-1856-1. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
• Crawford, Ronald L. (1986). "The Fulbright Teacher Exchange Program: A Few Caveats". Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German. 19 (1): 81–83. doi:10.2307/3530867. JSTOR 3530867.
• Crowley, David; Heyer, Paul (30 September 2015). Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-34939-6. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
• Curran, Marta; Rujas, Javier; Castejón, Alba (2022). "The Silent Expansion of Internationalisation: Exploring the Adoption of the International Baccalaureate in Madrid". Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education. 53 (7): 1244–1262. doi:10.1080/03057925.2021.2022456. S2CID 245816054.
• Curren, Randall (1996). "Education, Philosophy of". In Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18710-7. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Curtis, Will (2011). "The Philosophy of Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Danesi, Marcel (2013). Encyclopedia of Media and Communication. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-9553-5. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Danişman, Şahin (2017). "17. The Effect of Parent Involvement on Student Achievement". In Karadağ, Engin (ed.). The Factors Effecting Student Achievement: Meta-Analysis of Empirical Studies. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-56083-0. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Davies, Martin; Barnett, Ronald (2015). "Introduction". The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan US. doi:10.1057/9781137378057_1. ISBN 978-1-137-37805-7.
• DBE Staff. "About DBE". Department of Basic Education. Archived from the original on 13 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
• Dekker, Jeroen J. H. (20 April 2023). A Cultural History of Education in the Renaissance. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-23905-0. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
• DeVitis, Joseph L.; Irwin-DeVitis, Linda (2010). "Preface". Adolescent Education: A Reader. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-0504-3. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
• Dewey, John (2004). "6. Education as Conservative and Progressive". Democracy and Education. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-43399-8. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Dhiman, Satinder (2017). Holistic Leadership: A New Paradigm for Today's Leaders. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-55571-7. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Dolgopolov, Yuri (1 February 2016). A Dictionary of Confusable Phrases: More Than 10,000 Idioms and Collocations. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-5995-7. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• Doukakis, Spyriodn; Niari, Maria; Alexopoulos, Evita; Sfyris, Panagiotis (2022). "Online Learning, Students' Assessment and Educational Neuroscience". In Auer, Michael E.; Tsiatsos, Thrasyvoulos (eds.). New Realities, Mobile Systems and Applications: Proceedings of the 14th IMCL Conference. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-96296-8.
• Dreeben, Olga (2010). Patient Education in Rehabilitation. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-5544-7. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• El-Abbadi, Mostafa (2023). "Library of Alexandria". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Elman, Benjamin A. (18 August 2016). "Civil Service Examinations". Berkshire Encyclopedia of China. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9770159-4-8.
• Emaliana, Ive (2017). "Teacher-Centered or Student-Centered Learning Approach To Promote Learning?". Jurnal Sosial Humaniora. 10 (2): 59. doi:10.12962/j24433527.v10i2.2161. S2CID 148796695.
• Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs; Gambs, Deborah (2001). "Sex Segregation in Education;". Encyclopedia of Women and Gender: Sex Similarities and Differences and the Impact of Society on Gender. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-227245-5. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
• Eshach, Haim (2007). "Bridging In-School and Out-of-School Learning: Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education". Journal of Science Education and Technology. 16 (2): 171–190. Bibcode:2007JSEdT..16..171E. doi:10.1007/s10956-006-9027-1. ISSN 1573-1839. S2CID 55089324.
• Esposito, John L., ed. (1 January 2003). "Madrasa". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
• Ferary, Dorothy (2023). "A Philosophical Perspective on the Purpose of Education in Indonesia". In Hebert, David G. (ed.). Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education. Springer Nature Singapore. pp. 51–71. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-0139-5_4. ISBN 978-981-99-0139-5. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
• Field, J. (2009). "Lifelong Learning". International Encyclopedia of Education. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-044894-7.
• Figueroa, Ligaya Leah; Lim, Samsung; Lee, Jihyun (2016). "Investigating the Relationship Between School Facilities and Academic Achievements Through Geographically Weighted Regression". Annals of GIS. 22 (4): 273–285. Bibcode:2016AnGIS..22..273F. doi:10.1080/19475683.2016.1231717. S2CID 46709454.
• Fogarty, Robin J.; Stoehr, Judy (2008). Integrating Curricula With Multiple Intelligences: Teams, Themes, and Threads. Corwin Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-5553-9. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Francois, Emmanuel Jean (2015). Building Global Education With a Local Perspective: An Introduction to Glocal Higher Education. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-38677-9. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Frankena, William K.; Burbules, Nicholas C.; Raybeck, Nathan (2003). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865594-9. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
• Freire, Paulo (1970). "Chapter 2". Pedagogy of the Oppressed (PDF). Herder and Herder. ISBN 978-0-14-080331-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 April 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Friesen, Norm (2017). The Textbook and the Lecture: Education in the Age of New Media. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-2434-7. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Gabriel, Cle-Anne (2022). Why Teach with Cases?: Reflections on Philosophy and Practice. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-80382-399-7. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
• Gallard, Diahann; Garden, Angie (2011). "The Psychology of Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Gary, Roberts; Crime, United Nations Office on Drugs and (2017). Education Sector Responses to the Use of Alcohol, Tobacco and Drugs. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-100211-3. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Ge (Rochelle) (葛贇), Yun (2022). "Internationalisation of Higher Education: New Players in a Changing Scene". Educational Research and Evaluation. 27 (3–4): 229–238. doi:10.1080/13803611.2022.2041850. S2CID 248370676.
• Gilliot, Claude (12 January 2018). "Libraries". In Meri, Josef (ed.). Routledge Revivals: Medieval Islamic Civilization (2006): An Encyclopedia - Volume II. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-66813-2.
• Gingell, John; Winch, Christopher (2002). Philosophy of Education: The Key Concepts. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-69031-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Glaeser, Edward L.; Ponzetto, Giacomo A. M.; Shleifer, Andrei (2007). "Why Does Democracy Need Education?". Journal of Economic Growth. 12 (2): 77–99. doi:10.1007/s10887-007-9015-1.
• Golosov, Grigorii V. (14 September 2017). "Electoral Integrity and Voter Turnout in Contemporary Autocracies". In Garnett, Holly Ann; Zavadskaya, Margarita (eds.). Electoral Integrity and Political Regimes: Actors, Strategies and Consequences. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-31510-2. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
• Gomathi, S.; Mohanavel, S. (19 October 2022). "Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable Pedagogical Development". In Goundar, Sam; Purwar, Archana; Singh, Ajmer (eds.). Applications of Artificial Intelligence, Big Data and Internet of Things in Sustainable Development. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781003245469-2. ISBN 978-1-000-65253-6. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
• Goswami, U (2006). "Neuroscience and Education: From Research to Practice?". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 7 (5): 406–413. doi:10.1038/nrn1907. PMID 16607400. S2CID 3113512.
• Götmark, Frank; Andersson, Malte (December 2020). "Human fertility in relation to education, economy, religion, contraception, and family planning programs". BMC Public Health. 20 (1): 265. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-8331-7. PMC 7036237. PMID 32087705.
• Green, Anthony (7 December 2022). L2 Writing Assessment: An Evolutionary Perspective. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-031-15011-1. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• Grendler, Paul F. (2005). "Education: Europe". In Horowitz, Maryanne Cline (ed.). New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0-684-31377-1. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
• Grigorenko, Elena L. (2008). "Multiple Intelligences Theory". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865973-2. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Gross, Robert N. (2018). Public Vs. Private: The Early History of School Choice in America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-064457-4. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Haack, Robin (1981). "Education and the Good Life". Philosophy. 56 (217): 289–302. doi:10.1017/S0031819100050282. ISSN 0031-8191. JSTOR 3750273. S2CID 144950876.
• Haleem, Abid; Javaid, Mohd; Qadri, Mohd Asim; Suman, Rajiv (2022). "Understanding the Role of Digital Technologies in Education: A Review". Sustainable Operations and Computers. 3: 275–285. Bibcode:2022soc..book..275H. doi:10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004. S2CID 249055862.
• Hand, Michael (2014). "What Should Go on the Curriculum". In Bailey, Richard (ed.). The Philosophy of Education: An Introduction. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4742-2899-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• HarperCollins staff (2023). "Education". The American Heritage Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
• HarperCollins staff (2023a). "Special Education". The American Heritage Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
• Harris, William T. (1881). "The Church, the State, and the School". The North American Review. 133 (298): 215–227. ISSN 0029-2397. JSTOR 25100991.
• Hart, Caroline Sarojini (2019). "Education, Inequality and Social Justice: A Critical Analysis Applying the Sen-Bourdieu Analytical Framework". Policy Futures in Education. 17 (5): 582–598. doi:10.1177/1478210318809758. S2CID 149540574.
• Hartnett, Maggie (8 March 2016). Motivation in Online Education. Springer Science+Business Media Singapore. ISBN 978-981-10-0700-2. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
• Hebert, David G. (2023). "Why Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education?". In Hebert, David G. (ed.). Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education. Springer Nature Singapore. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-0139-5_1. ISBN 978-981-99-0139-5. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
• Helms, Marilyn M. (2006). "Motivation and Motivation Theory". Encyclopedia of Management. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0-7876-6556-2. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Hicks, David (2004). "The Global Dimension in the Curriculum". In Ward, Stephen (ed.). Education Studies: A Student's Guide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-35767-3. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Hicks, David (2004a). "Education and Environment". In Ward, Stephen (ed.). Education Studies: A Student's Guide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-35767-3. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Hill, Paul; Pierce, Lawrence C.; Guthrie, James W. (2009). Reinventing Public Education: How Contracting Can Transform America's Schools. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-33653-4. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Hoad, T. F. (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283098-8.
• Honeybourne, John (2005). BTEC First Sport. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 978-0-7487-8553-7. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Horwitz, Ilana M. (2021). "Religion and Academic Achievement: A Research Review Spanning Secondary School and Higher Education". Review of Religious Research. 63 (1): 107–154. doi:10.1007/s13644-020-00433-y. S2CID 256247903.
• Hoskin, Keith (2021). "Technologies of Learning and Alphabetic Culture: The History of Writing as the History of Education". In Green, Bill (ed.). The Insistence of the Letter. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-84402-7. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Hughes, Claretha; Gosney, Matthew W. (2016). The History of Human Resource Development: Understanding the Unexplored Philosophies, Theories, and Methodologies. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-52698-4. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Hughes, Conrad (26 April 2021). Education and Elitism: Challenges and Opportunities. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-37731-6. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
• Hughes, Pat (2009). "Breaking Barriers to Learning". In Warren, Sue (ed.). An Introduction to Education Studies: The Student Guide to Themes and Contexts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9920-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• International Commission on the Futures of Education (2022). Reimagining Our Futures Together: A New Social Contract for Education. UN. ISBN 978-92-1-001210-2. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
• Iseke, Judy (2013). "Indigenous Storytelling as Research". International Review of Qualitative Research. 6 (4): 559–577. doi:10.1525/irqr.2013.6.4.559. ISSN 1940-8447. JSTOR 10.1525/irqr.2013.6.4.559. S2CID 144222653.
• Isik, Ulviye; Tahir, Omaima El; Meeter, Martijn; Heymans, Martijn W.; Jansma, Elise P.; Croiset, Gerda; Kusurkar, Rashmi A. (2018). "Factors Influencing Academic Motivation of Ethnic Minority Students: A Review". SAGE Open. 8 (2). doi:10.1177/2158244018785412. S2CID 149809331.
• Jackson, Philip W. (2011). "6. In Pursuit of Perfection". What Is Education?. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-38939-4. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Jacob, W. James; Cheng, Sheng Yao; Porter, Maureen K. (2015). Indigenous Education: Language, Culture and Identity. Springer. ISBN 978-94-017-9355-1. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Jarvis, Peter (2012). An International Dictionary of Adult and Continuing Education. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-97506-8. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Johnes, Jill; Portela, Maria; Thanassoulis, Emmanuel (2017). "Efficiency in Education". Journal of the Operational Research Society. 68 (4): 331–338. doi:10.1057/s41274-016-0109-z. S2CID 14220634.
• Johnson, Mark S.; Stearns, Peter N. (2023). Education in World History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-81337-8. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Johnson, Thomas H. (1 February 2018). Taliban Narratives: The Use and Power of Stories in the Afghanistan Conflict. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-091135-5. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
• Johnson, W. J. (1 January 2009). "Gurukula". A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0. Archived from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• Jong-Wha, Lee (2018). "Education in the Age of Automation". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• Kantzara, Vasiliki (2016). "Education, Social Functions of". The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeose097.pub3. ISBN 978-1-4051-2433-1.
• Karadağ, Engin (2017). "20. Conclusion and Limitations". In Karadağ, Engin (ed.). The Factors Effecting Student Achievement: Meta-Analysis of Empirical Studies. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-56083-0. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Karadağ, Engin; Bektaş, Fatih; Çoğaltay, Nazım; Yalçın, Mikail (2017). "2. The Effect of Educational Leadership on Students' Achievement". In Karadağ, Engin (ed.). The Factors Effecting Student Achievement: Meta-Analysis of Empirical Studies. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-56083-0. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Kassem, Derek; Mufti, Emmanuel; Robinson, John (2006). Education Studies: Issues and Critical Perspectives. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-335-21973-5.
• Kay, Janet (1 November 2004). Good Practice in the Early Years. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-7273-1. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
• Kemmis, Stephen; Edwards-Groves, Christine (24 October 2017). Understanding Education: History, Politics and Practice. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-10-6433-3. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Kimble, Gregory A. (2023). "Learning Theory". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
• Kimmons, Royce (2015). "Games and Transformational Play". In Spector, J. Michael (ed.). The Sage Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5063-1129-6. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Kiracofe, Christine Rienstra; Hirth, Marilyn A.; Hutton, Tom (2022). Charter School Funding Considerations. IAP. ISBN 978-1-64802-835-9. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Kirchin, Simon (25 April 2013). Thick Concepts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-165250-9. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
• Kortti, Jukka (17 April 2019). Media in History: An Introduction to the Meanings and Transformations of Communication over Time. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-352-00596-7. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
• Kotzee, Ben (2011). "Education and 'Thick' Epistemology". Educational Theory. 61 (5): 549–564. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2011.00420.x.
• Kraftl, Peter (2014). Informal Education, Childhood and Youth: Geographies, Histories, Practices. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-02773-3. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
• Krishnan, Karthik (2020). "Our Education System Is Losing Relevance. Here's How To Update It". World Economic Forum. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• Krueger, Alan B; Lindahl, Mikael (2001). "Education for Growth: Why and for Whom?" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 39 (4): 1101–1136. doi:10.1257/jel.39.4.1101. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2023.
• Kte'pi, Bill (2013). "Chronology". In Ainsworth, James (ed.). Sociology of Education: An A-to-Z Guide. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5063-5473-6. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Kuskis, Alexander; Logan, Robert (2014). "A Historical View of Education from the Perspective of Marshall McLuhan and Media Ecology". In Ciastellardi, Matteo (ed.). International Journal of McLuhan Studies 2012–13: Education Overload. From Total Surround to Pattern Recognition (in Spanish). Universidad Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-939995-9-9. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• La Belle, Thomas J. (1982). "Formal, Nonformal and Informal Education: A Holistic Perspective on Lifelong Learning". International Review of Education. 28 (2): 159–175. doi:10.1007/BF00598444. ISSN 1573-0638. S2CID 144859947.
• Lamprianou, Iasonas; Athanasou, James A. (2009). A Teacher's Guide to Educational Assessment: Revised Edition. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-8790-914-7.
• Lane, John; Lane, Andrew M.; Kyprianou, Anna (2004). "Self-Efficacy, Self-Esteem and Their Impact on Academic Performance". Social Behavior and Personality. 32 (3): 247–256. doi:10.2224/sbp.2004.32.3.247.
• Lareau, Annette; Ferguson, Sherelle (2018). "Education, Sociology of". In Ryan, J. Michael (ed.). Core Concepts in Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-16863-8. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Le Play, Debbie (2011). "Comparative Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Lee, Ya-Hui (2021). "From Older Adult Education to Social Service: The Transformation of Elderly Education Organizations". Journal of Social Service Research. 47 (5): 714–723. doi:10.1080/01488376.2021.1908483. ISSN 0148-8376. S2CID 234801525.
• Li, Zijian (2006). Values Education for Citizens in the New Century. Chinese University Press. ISBN 978-962-996-153-4. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
• Lightman, Bernard (11 November 2019). A Companion to the History of Science. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-12114-5. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
• Liu, Ying (2023). "An Exploration of EFL Teachers' Assessment Literacy and Its Enhancement". In Hussain, Rosila Bee Binti Mohd; Parc, Jimmyn; Li, Jia (eds.). Proceedings of the 2023 9th International Conference on Humanities and Social Science Research (ICHSSR 2023). Springer Nature. ISBN 978-2-38476-092-3. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
• Lynch, John Patrick (1972). Aristotle's School; a Study of a Greek Educational Institution. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02194-5. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
• Main, Shiho (2012). "'The Other Half' of Education: Unconscious Education of Children". Educational Philosophy and Theory. 44 (1): 82–95. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00643.x. ISSN 0013-1857. S2CID 145281776.
• Maluccio, John A.; Hoddinott, John; Behrman, Jere R.; Martorell, Reynaldo; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Stein, Aryeh D. (1 April 2009). "The Impact of Improving Nutrition During Early Childhood on Education among Guatemalan Adults". The Economic Journal. 119 (537): 734–763. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02220.x. S2CID 154857298.
• Marquis, Donald G. (1942). "The Neurology of Learning". Comparative Psychology (Rev. Ed.).: 153–177. doi:10.1037/11454-007.
• Marsden, Peter (1998). The Taliban: War, Religion and the New Order in Afghanistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-85649-522-6.
• Marshall, James D. (2006). "The Meaning of the Concept of Education: Searching for the Lost Arc". Journal of Thought. 41 (3): 33–37. ISSN 0022-5231. JSTOR 42589880.
• Marshall, Stephen (2013). "Open Educational Curricula Interpreted Through the Maori Concept of Ako". In Gosper, Maree; Ifenthaler, Dirk (eds.). Curriculum Models for the 21st Century: Using Learning Technologies in Higher Education. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4614-7366-4. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
• Matheson, David (2014). "What Is Education?". An Introduction to the Study of Education (4th ed.). Routledge. pp. 15–32. doi:10.4324/9780203105450-8. ISBN 978-0-203-10545-0. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Mazurek, Kas; Winzer, Margret A. (1994). Comparative Studies in Special Education. Gallaudet University Press. ISBN 978-1-56368-027-4. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• McHugh, Richard (2016). "Anarchism and Informal Informal Pedagogy: 'Gangs', Difference, Deference". In Springer, Simon; Souza, Marcelo Lopes de; White, Richard J. (eds.). The Radicalization of Pedagogy: Anarchism, Geography, and the Spirit of Revolt. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-78348-671-7. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
• McInerney, Dennis M. (2019). "Motivation". Educational Psychology. 39 (4): 427–429. doi:10.1080/01443410.2019.1600774. S2CID 218508624.
• Mead, Margaret (1943). "Our Educational Emphases in Primitive Perspective". American Journal of Sociology. 48 (6): 633–639. doi:10.1086/219260. ISSN 0002-9602. JSTOR 2770220. S2CID 145275269.
• Meece, J. L.; Blumenfeld, P. C.; Hoyle, R. H. (1988). "Students' Goal Orientations and Cognitive Engagement in Classroom Activities". Journal of Educational Psychology. 80 (4): 514–523. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.514.
• Miao, Fengchun; Holmes, Wayne (2023). Guidance for generative AI in education and research. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-100612-8.
• MoE Staff. "About MoE". Ministry of Education (Government of India). Archived from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
• Monds, Kathaleena Edward (2022). "The Freedom to Homeschool: Community as Classroom". In Ali-Coleman, Khadijah; Fields-Smith, Cheryl (eds.). Homeschooling Black Children in the U.S.: Theory, Practice, and Popular Culture. IAP. ISBN 978-1-64802-784-0. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Moore, Alex (2004). The Good Teacher: Dominant Discourses in Teaching and Teacher Education. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-33564-5. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Morgan, W. John; Trofimova, Irina N.; Kliucharev, Grigori A. (2018). Civil Society, Social Change, and a New Popular Education in Russia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-62568-0. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Murphy, John (2014). Gods & Goddesses of the Inca, Maya, and Aztec Civilizations. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-62275-396-3. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Murphy, Lisa; Mufti, Emmanuel; Kassem, Derek (2009). Education Studies. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). ISBN 978-0-335-23763-0. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Murphy, Patricia (2003). "1. Defining Pedagogy". In Gipps, Caroline V. (ed.). Equity in the Classroom: Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-71682-0. Retrieved 22 August 2022.
• Musterd, Sako (11 December 2023). Advanced Introduction to Urban Segregation. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-80392-408-3. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
• National Education League (1875). "Compulsory Education". New England Journal of Education. 1 (5): 52. ISSN 2578-4145. JSTOR 44763565.
• Neem, Johann N. (2017). Democracy's Schools: The Rise of Public Education in America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-2322-7. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• New, Rebecca Staples; Cochran, Moncrieff (2007). Early Childhood Education: An International Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-34143-4. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Nicholas, David M. (2014). The Growth of the Medieval City: From Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-88550-4. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Noddings, Nel (1995). Philosophy of Education. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-8429-0.
• Nwuzor, Chizoba Vivian (25 October 2017). "Education in Africa". In Akanle, Olayinka; Adésìnà, Jìmí Olálékan (eds.). The Development of Africa: Issues, Diagnoses and Prognoses. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-66242-8. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• O'Brien, Maeve; Flynn, Marie (2007). "Emotions, Inequalities and Care in Education". In Downes, Paul; Gilligan, Ann Louise (eds.). Beyond Educational Disadvantage. Institute of Public Administration. ISBN 978-1-904541-57-8. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
• OECD (2013a). Education at a Glance 2013 OECD Indicators: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-20105-7. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
• OECD (2015). ISCED 2011 Operational Manual Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications: Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-22836-8. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• OECD (29 May 2007). OECD Economic Surveys: United States 2007. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-03277-4. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
• OECD (2018). OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018 Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications: Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-30444-4. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• OECD (2012). Reviews of National Policies for Education: Higher Education in the Dominican Republic 2012. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-17705-5. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
• OECD (2013). Educational Research and Innovation Innovative Learning Environments. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-20348-8. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
• Oliveira, Wilk; Bittencourt, Ig Ibert (2019). Tailored Gamification to Educational Technologies. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-329-812-5. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Ornstein, Allan C.; Levine, Daniel U.; Gutek, Gerry; Vocke, David E. (2016). Foundations of Education. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-85489-5. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• OUP staff. "Public Education". Oxford Learner's Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• Papadatou-Pastou, Marietta; Gritzali, Maria; Barrable, Alexia (2018). "The Learning Styles Educational Neuromyth: Lack of Agreement Between Teachers' Judgments, Self-Assessment, and Students' Intelligence". Frontiers in Education. 3. Frontiers Media SA. doi:10.3389/feduc.2018.00105. ISSN 2504-284X.
• Paechter, Carrie (2001). Learning, Space and Identity. Sage. ISBN 978-0-7619-6939-6. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Page, Randy; Page, Tana (2010). Promoting Health and Emotional Well-Being in Your Classroom. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-7612-1. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Pashler, Harold; McDaniel, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2008). "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x. ISSN 1529-1006. PMID 26162104. S2CID 2112166.
• Patzuk-Russell, Ryder (8 February 2021). The Development of Education in Medieval Iceland. Medieval Institute Publications. doi:10.1515/9781501514180 (inactive 3 December 2024). ISBN 978-1-5015-1418-0. S2CID 241898425. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
• Pazmiño, Robert W. (2002). Principles and Practices of Christian Education: An Evangelical Perspective. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-7252-0227-6. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
• Peel, Edwin A. (2023). "Pedagogy". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 July 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
• Peters, R. S. (2009) [1967]. "What Is an Educational Process?". In Peters, R.S (ed.). The Concept of Education. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203861073. ISBN 978-0-203-86107-3. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Peters, R. S. (2015). "1. Criteria of Education". Ethics and Education (Routledge Revivals). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49478-2. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Peters, Richard S.; Woods, John; Dray, William H. (1973). "Aims of Education: A Conceptual Inquiry". The Philosophy of Education. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875023-9. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Pizmony-Levy, Oren (4 May 2017). "Big Comparisons, Little Knowledge: Public Engagement With PISA in the United States and Israel". In Wiseman, Alexander W.; Taylor, Calley Stevens (eds.). The Impact of the OECD on Education Worldwide. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78714-727-0. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
• Poe, Marshall (2011). A History of Communications: Media and Society From the Evolution of Speech to the Internet. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-97691-9.
• Portes, Pedro R. (1999). "Social and Psychological Factors in the Academic Achievement of Children of Immigrants: A Cultural History Puzzle". American Educational Research Journal. 36 (3): 489–507. doi:10.2307/1163548. JSTOR 1163548.
• Power, Edward J. (1970). Main Currents in the History of Education. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050581-0. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Quinn, Francis M. (2013). "The Demise of Curriculum". In Humphreys, John; Quinn, Francis M. (eds.). Health Care Education: The Challenge of the Market. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4899-3232-7. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Raghupathi, Viju; Raghupathi, Wullianallur (2020). "The Influence of Education on Health: An Empirical Assessment of OECD Countries for the Period 1995–2015". Archives of Public Health. 78 (1): 20. doi:10.1186/s13690-020-00402-5. ISSN 2049-3258. PMC 7133023. PMID 32280462.
• Raikes, Abbie; Alvarenga Lima, Jem Heinzel-Nelson; Abuchaim, Beatriz (24 May 2023). "Early Childhood Education in Brazil: Child Rights to ECE in Context of Great Disparities". Children. 10 (6): 919. doi:10.3390/children10060919. PMC 10297598. PMID 37371151.
• Ramsay, John G. (2008). "Education, History of". In Provenzo, Eugene F. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education. Sage. ISBN 978-1-4522-6597-1. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Reagan, Timothy (2005). Non-Western Educational Traditions: Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8058-4857-1. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
• Reid, Alan (2018). "Restoring the 'Publicness' of Public Education". In Wilkinson, Jane; Niesche, Richard; Eacott, Scott (eds.). Challenges for Public Education: Reconceptualising Educational Leadership, Policy and Social Justice as Resources for Hope. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-79193-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Reimers, Fernando M. (2020). Education and Climate Change: The Role of Universities. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-57927-2. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Reyhner, Jon; Singh, Navin Kumar (2021). "Indigenous Education in a Global Context". Oxford Bibliographies. Archived from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
• Rodriguez-Segura, Daniel (2022). "EdTech in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence". The World Bank Research Observer. 37 (2): 171–203. doi:10.1093/wbro/lkab011.
• Rohrer, Doug; Pashler, Harold (2012). "Learning styles: where's the evidence?". Medical Education. 46 (7). Wiley: 634–635. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04273.x. ISSN 0308-0110. PMID 22691144.
• Rosenkranz, Karl; Brackett, Anna Callender (1872). The Science of Education: A Paraphrase of Dr. Karl Rosenkranz's Paedagogik Als System. G.I. Jones. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
• Roser, Max; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban (2013). "Primary and Secondary Education". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
• Salganik, Laura Hersh; Matheson, Nancy; Phelps, Richard P. (1997). Education Indicators: An International Perspective. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7881-4267-3. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Salvatori, Mariolina Rizzi (2003). Pedagogy: Disturbing History, 1820–1930. University of Pittsburgh Pre. ISBN 978-0-8229-7246-4. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Sampath, K. (1981). Introduction to Educational Technology. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-207-3139-4. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Schmid, Evi; Garrels, Veerle (2021). "Parental Involvement and Educational Success Among Vulnerable Students in Vocational Education and Training". Educational Research. 63 (4): 456–473. doi:10.1080/00131881.2021.1988672. S2CID 244163476.
• Schoen, La Tefy G. (29 October 2008). "Educational Indicators". In Provenzo, Eugene F. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education. Sage. ISBN 978-1-4522-6597-1. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
• Schuknecht, Ludger (2020). Public Spending and the Role of the State: History, Performance, Risk and Remedies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-49623-0. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Scott, William; Vare, Paul (2020). Learning, Environment and Sustainable Development: A History of Ideas. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-20802-3. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Scribner, Sylvia; Cole, Michael (1973). "Cognitive Consequences of Formal and Informal Education: New Accommodations Are Needed Between School-Based Learning and Learning Experiences of Everyday Life". Science. 182 (4112): 553–559. doi:10.1126/science.182.4112.553. PMID 17739714.
• Selwyn, Neil (2013). Education in a Digital World: Global Perspectives on Technology and Education. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-80844-6. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• SEP Staff. "Secretaría de Educación Pública". Secretaría de Educación Pública. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
• Sewell, Keira; Newman, Stephen (2013). "1. What Is Education?". In Curtis, Will; Ward, Stephen; Sharp, John; Hankin, Les (eds.). Education Studies: An Issue Based Approach. Learning Matters. ISBN 978-1-4462-9693-6. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Shah, Anwar (1 November 2009). "Demanding to Be Served: Holding Governments to Account for Improved Access". In Jong, De Jorrit; Rizvi, Gowher (eds.). The State of Access: Success and Failure of Democracies to Create Equal Opportunities. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-0176-7. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
• Shelley, Fred M. (2022). Examining Education Around the World. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-4408-6448-3. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
• Shute, Valerie J.; Hansen, Eric G.; Underwood, Jody S.; Razzouk, Rim (2011). "A Review of the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and Secondary School Students' Academic Achievement". Education Research International. 2011: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2011/915326.
• Siegel, Harvey; Phillips, D.C.; Callan, Eamonn (2018). "Philosophy of Education". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
• Siegel, Harvey (2023). "Philosophy of Education". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
• Siegel, Harvey (2010). "Introduction: Philosophy of Education and Philosophy". The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–9. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-531288-1. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Singh, M. (2015). "Introduction". Global Perspectives on Recognising Non-formal and Informal Learning: Why Recognition Matters. Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects. Vol. 21. Springer-UNESCO. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-15278-3. ISBN 978-3-319-15277-6.
• Skowron, Janice (2015). Powerful Lesson Planning: Every Teacher's Guide to Effective Instruction. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-5107-0121-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Sliwka, Anne (2008). "The Contribution of Alternative Education". Innovating to Learn, Learning to Innovate. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-04798-3. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Sluga, Hans (2006). "Family Resemblance". Grazer Philosophische Studien. 71 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1163/18756735-071001003 (inactive 11 November 2024). S2CID 90166164. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
• Smith, Kevin B.; Meier, Kenneth J. (2016). The Case Against School Choice: Politics, Markets and Fools. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-28655-6. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Smith, Patricia L.; Ragan, Tillman J. (2004). Instructional Design. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-39353-5. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Smith, Sharon (2020). "Forms of Education: Rethinking Educational Experience Against and Outside the Humanist Legacy". British Journal of Educational Studies. 68 (6): 781–783. doi:10.1080/00071005.2020.1785788. ISSN 0007-1005. S2CID 225403522. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Spring, Joel (3 September 2018). Global Impacts of the Western School Model: Corporatization, Alienation, Consumerism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-00272-1. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
• Staats, Beth. "What Is Media Literacy and Why Is It Important? Minitex". Minitex. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• Sternberg, Robert J. (2022). "Human Intelligence". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
• Strauss, Claudia (1984). "Beyond 'Formal' versus 'Informal' Education: Uses of Psychological Theory in Anthropological Research". Ethos. 12 (3). doi:10.1525/eth.1984.12.3.02a00010. ISSN 0091-2131. JSTOR 640180.
• Sullivan, Amanda Alzena (2019). Breaking the STEM Stereotype: Reaching Girls in Early Childhood. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4758-4205-0. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Taylor, C M. (1999). "Education and Personal Development: A Reflection". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 81 (6): 531–537. doi:10.1136/adc.81.6.531. PMC 1718155. PMID 10569977.
• Rosove, Perry E. (1973). "The Integration of Humanism and Educational Technology". Introduction to Educational Technology. Educational Technology Publications. ISBN 978-0-87778-049-6. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• The economist data team (2018). "A Study Finds Nearly Half of Jobs Are Vulnerable to Automation". The Economist. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2023). "Alternative Education". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2014). "Herbartianism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
• Tiem, Darlene Van; Moseley, James L.; Dessinger, Joan C. (2012). Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-02524-6. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Tillman, Daniel A.; An, Song A.; Robertson, William H. (19 September 2019). "The Relationship Between Formal and Informal Learning". In Mora, Javier Calvo de; Kennedy, Kerry J. (eds.). Schools and Informal Learning in a Knowledge-Based World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-66619-3. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• Todd, Loreto; Hancock, Ian (16 November 2005). International English Usage. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-96471-0. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
• Tomlinson, Sally (2012). A Sociology of Special Education (RLE Edu M). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-45711-1. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Torabian, Juliette E. (2022). Wealth, Values, Culture & Education: Reviving the essentials for equality & sustainability. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-92893-3. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
• Tosto, Samantha A.; Alyahya, Jehad; Espinoza, Victoria; McCarthy, Kylie; Tcherni-Buzzeo, Maria (2023). "Online learning in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic: Mixed methods analysis of student views by demographic group". Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 8 (1). doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100598. PMC 10284669. PMID 37366390.
• Traxler, John; Crompton, Helen (26 November 2020). Critical Mobile Pedagogy: Cases of Digital Technologies and Learners at the Margins. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-53716-5. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
• Tudor, Sofia Loredana (2013). "Formal – Non-formal – Informal in Education". Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 76: 821–826. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.213.
• Tukdeo, Shivali (17 November 2019). India Goes to School: Education Policy and Cultural Politics. Springer Nature India. ISBN 978-81-322-3957-4. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
• UN (2023). "International Years". United Nations. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
• UN (2023a). "List of International Days and Weeks". United Nations. Archived from the original on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
• UN (2020). "Policy Brief: Education During COVID-19 and Beyond" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
• UNESCO (2012). "International Standard Classification of Education ISCED 2011" (PDF). uis.unesco.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 January 2017.
• UNESCO. "Convention Against Discrimination in Education". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• UNESCO (2021). Guidelines To Strengthen the Right to Education in National Frameworks. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-100428-5. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• UNESCO (2018). "UNESCO SDG Resources for Educators – Quality Education". en.unesco.org. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
• UNESCO (2016). Out in the Open: Education Sector Responses to Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity/Expression (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-100150-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
• United Nations. "Education for All". United Nations website. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
• Urata, Shūjirō; Kuroda, Kazuo; Tonegawa, Yoshiko (2022). Sustainable Development Disciplines for Humanity: Breaking Down the 5Ps—People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnerships. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-19-4859-6. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Van Hiel, Alain; Van Assche, Jasper; De Cremer, David; Onraet, Emma; Bostyn, Dries; Haesevoets, Tessa; Roets, Arne (2018). "Can Education Change the World? Education Amplifies Differences in Liberalization Values and Innovation Between Developed and Developing Countries". PLOS One. 13 (6): e0199560. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1399560V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0199560. PMC 6013109. PMID 29928058.
• Verbree, Anne-Roos; Maas, Lientje; Hornstra, Lisette; Wijngaards-de Meij, Leoniek (2021). "Personality Predicts Academic Achievement in Higher Education: Differences by Academic Field of Study?". Learning and Individual Differences. 92. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102081. S2CID 239399549.
• Vico, Giambattista (1999). New Science. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-14-190769-7. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
• Wagner, Michael; Deindl, Philipp; Schmölzer, Georg (2023). Future Medical Education in Pediatrics and Neonatology. Frontiers Media SA. ISBN 978-2-8325-1317-0. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Waks, Leonard J. (2019). "Massive Open Online Courses and the Future of Higher Education". Contemporary Technologies in Education. Springer International Publishing. pp. 183–213. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89680-9_10. ISBN 978-3-319-89679-3. S2CID 169763293.
• Waller, Richard (2011). "The Sociology of Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Walton, Linda (9 April 2015). "Educational Institutions". In Kedar, Benjamin Z.; Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. (eds.). The Cambridge World History: Volume 5, Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conflict, 500CE–1500CE. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-29775-9. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
• Ward, Stephen (2004). "Introduction". In Ward, Stephen (ed.). Education Studies: A Student's Guide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-35767-3. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Warren, Sue (2009). "Introduction to Education as a Field of Study". In Warren, Sue (ed.). An Introduction to Education Studies: The Student Guide to Themes and Contexts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9920-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Warren, Sue; Waltham, Susan (2009). "Ethics for Educators". In Warren, Sue (ed.). An Introduction to Education Studies: The Student Guide to Themes and Contexts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9920-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Watkins, Chris; Mortimore, Peter (1999). "1: Pedagogy: What Do We Know?". Understanding Pedagogy and Its Impact on Learning. Sage. doi:10.4135/9781446219454. ISBN 978-1-85396-453-4. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 22 August 2022.
• Watson, Lani (2016). "The Epistemology of Education". Philosophy Compass. 11 (3): 146–159. doi:10.1111/phc3.12316. ISSN 1747-9991.
• Webb-Mitchell, Brett (2003). Christly Gestures: Learning to be Members of the Body of Christ. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-4937-3. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
• Weiner, Bernard (2000). "Motivation: An Overview". In Kazdin, Alan E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology Volume 5. American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-1-55798-187-5. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Williams, Susan M.; Mehlinger, Howard D.; Powers, Susan M.; Baldwin, Roger G. (2003a). "Technology in Education". In Guthrie, James W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Education. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865594-9. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Willingham, Daniel T.; Hughes, Elizabeth M.; Dobolyi, David G. (2015). "The Scientific Status of Learning Styles Theories". Teaching of Psychology. 42 (3): 266–271. doi:10.1177/0098628315589505. S2CID 146126992.
• Wilson, John (2003). "The Concept of Education Revisited". Journal of Philosophy of Education. 37 (1): 101–108. doi:10.1111/1467-9752.3701007. ISSN 0309-8249.
• Winters, Marcus A. (2012). Teachers Matter: Rethinking How Public Schools Identify, Reward, and Retain Great Educators. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-1077-6. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Xu, Duoduo; Wu, Xiaogang (20 October 2022). "Separate and unequal: hukou , school segregation, and educational inequality in urban China". Chinese Sociological Review. 54 (5): 433–457. doi:10.1080/21620555.2021.2019007. S2CID 254045383.
• Yamada, Shoko (2016). Post-Education-for-All and Sustainable Development Paradigm: Structural Changes With Diversifying Actors and Norms. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78441-270-8. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Yeravdekar, Vidya Rajiv; Tiwari, Gauri (2016). Internationalization of Higher Education in India. Sage India. ISBN 978-93-86042-13-2. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Young, Spencer E. (2019). "Education in Medieval Europe". In Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-934003-3. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Zawacki-Richter, Olaf; Conrad, Dianne; Bozkurt, Aras; Aydin, Cengiz Hakan; Bedenlier, Svenja; Jung, Insung; Stöter, Joachim; Veletsianos, George; Blaschke, Lisa Marie; Bond, Melissa; Broens, Andrea; Bruhn, Elisa; Dolch, Carina; Kalz, Marco; Kerres, Michael; Kondakci, Yasar; Marin, Victoria; Mayrberger, Kerstin; Müskens, Wolfgang; Naidu, Som; Qayyum, Adnan; Roberts, Jennifer; Sangrà, Albert; Loglo, Frank Senyo; Slagter van Tryon, Patricia J.; Xiao, Junhong (2020). "Elements of Open Education: An Invitation to Future Research". The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning. 21 (3). doi:10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4659. S2CID 226018305.

External links

• Education – OECD
• Education – UNESCO
• Education – World Bank