Brazilian criminal justice

The Brazilian criminal justice system comes from the civil law of Western Europe, in particular Portuguese law, which derives from Roman law. The earliest legal documents in Brazil were land grants and charters dating to the early 16th century, which continued to be used until independence in 1822. Various basic principles of law are enshrined in the 1988 Constitution, such as the principle of legality and the principle of human dignity.

Various institutions work together to implement the criminal justice system, including the National Congress, which passes laws to define what acts are considered criminal in the Penal Code and codifies the criminal procedures for implementing them; three national and multiple state-level police forces to prevent and combat crime and hold alleged perpetrators for prosecution; the judiciary, including 92 courts at the federal and state levels, to interpret the codes, and hear prosecutions and judge perpetrators; and a correctional system to punish and rehabilitate convicted criminals.

The workings of the criminal justice system have had many changes, reflecting Brazil's history of colonialism, Empire, Republics, military dictatorship, and democracy, and of persistent, endemic corruption and scandals. There have been attempts to rein in corruption: in the 2010s, Operation Car Wash a investigation into corruption within the government which lasted eight years. The investigation extended to multiple foreign countries, and resulted in a thousand indictments, half a billion dollars in fines, affected three former presidents, and imprisoned one.

Rates of crime in Brazil are elevated. Brazil ranks high amongst the most number of homicides in the world; it ranked 4th in South America in 2021. In the correctional system, although laws guarantee prisoners a livable amount of space and decent living conditions, in fact prisons are very overcrowded, typically housing two to five times the number of inmates they were designed for.

Introduction

Historical background

Brazil's legal tradition derives from the civil law of Western Europe, in particular Portuguese law, which in turn comes from Roman law.^[1]

Unlike other parts of Latin America, Brazil in pre-colonial times before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500 did not have any developed indigenous cultures with institutions of their own, such as Mayas, Incas or Aztecs elsewhere. It was also very different from Spanish or English colonization, as Brazil was a vast and very sparsely populated region. Also, Portugal was busy with African and Asian colonies, before looking toward Brazil around 1530. In 1548, the General Government was created (governo-geral) to administer the area.^[2]

Some of the first legal documents were the Gift letters^{[pt; it]} for hereditary ownership, and the Foral, a royal decree which called for defining borders and administering the land from the early 16th century, shortly after the Portuguese arrived in Brazil. These continued to be used until independence in 1822. Indigenous practices were ignored, although outside of legal practice they had a great influence on the developing nation. The huge, unknown and hostile environment led to slow development of legal practices due to the distance of the motherland, and generally lacked legitimacy from initial discovery to declaration of the kingdom in 1815, and the republic in 1822.^[3]

Civil law came to Brazil with the Empire of Brazil.^[4]

Originally a plantation economy,^[5] Brazil abolished slavery in several stages during the 19th century.^[6]

Colonial period (1500–1822)

During the colonial period, the system of law consisted of Royal Ordinances: the Alfonsine Ordinances^[pt] (Ordenações Afonsinas) from 1446, which drew heavily from Roman law, the Phillipine Ordinances^[pt] (Ordenações Filipinas) from 1603, and the Manueline Ordinances of 1512. The Alfonsine Ordinances are unique in being the first norms produced in the way modern codes are. The Manueline was a revised version of the Phillipine, and the first printed code anywhere; portions remained in effect after independence in 1822, and it was not fully replaced until Clovis Bevilaqua's Civil Code of 1917.^[7]

Old Republic (1889–1930)

Changes in earlier, classical views of criminology arrived in Brazil in the nineteenth century, especially after 1870, from the ferment and discourse in Europe in positivist criminology, and fin de siècle views of "degeneration" and supposed "scientific" methods of dealing with deviant elements of society and protecting society from them.

Positivist criminology emerged in Europe in the 1880s^[8] in the context of legal and scientific discourse on criminality and deviance which attempted to understand the question, "what makes a man become a criminal?". In Brazil, these currents emerged during the First Republic, which was a period of intense political, economic, and social upheaval. The Republic was proclaimed in 1889, the economy was being transformed by capitalism, and society was being reshaped in a more individualistic form. The legal system, and especially criminal law, struggled to keep pace with the whirlwinds sweeping Brazil during the First Republic.^[9]

The Zeitgeist of the time was the advance of science and cause and effect in understanding phenomena, replacing earlier, more spiritualist views dating to the Middle Ages. Evil had to be understood and explained through observation, calculation, and the use of neutral experiment and scientific method. This extended to the field of medicine, which also was seen as the arbiter of what is normal or pathological, and especially psychiatry, which became key, as besides being concerned with mental illness asoaddressed the issue of identifying dangerous behavior.^[10]

Fin de siècle Europe was suffused with images of degeneration and decay, and the idea the dangerous classes and criminality would take over society was common. This impeded progress, and to stop it, science would analyze it and provide possible cures. Degeneration became an umbrella term for numerous categories of people, spanning criminals, prostitutes, the insane, and other forms of deviance, and could be countered by the emerging field of criminology, whose object of study was the deviant and attempted to understand the causes, in order to be able to protect society, and to support progress by reducing or controlling degeneration. Cesare Lombroso combined many of these threads and analyzed theories about criminiality from a medical perspective, essentially creating a "criminal profile" of someone who is born a criminal. This led to a conception of criminal anthropology by doctors who viewed crime as a symptom of the inborn nature of a criminal, who therefore needed to be treated and not punished. The field of law was encroached upon by biology.^[11]

The "scientific" development of the idea of "degenerate individuals" veered away from actual study of the criminal element, and towards a means of governing. "Normal" individuals (i.e., white men, employed, civilized per European standards) viewed other types as deviants from normality and a threat to the social order. All of these ideas and theories and attitudes and methods of dealing with them arrived in Brazil from Europe in the nineteenth century, especially after 1870. The new ideas from the positivist school mixed with earlier liberal views from the classical school, and were well received by Brazilian jurists, being viewed as the latest advances from Europe, and resulted in various legal and institutional changes in Brazil, especially in the area of punishment, and control.^[12]

Brazil already had a mature legal culture, and the reception of European criminology happened during a time of profound social and political changes from the end of slavery to consolidation of the republic. There was an atmosphere of openness and inclusion of new ideas, such as by the School of Recife^{[pt; es; de]}. This paved the way for the acceptance of positivist criminology, with its air of modernity and free from a spiritualist past they rejected, and moving towards a goal of ensuring social order, which is part of the motto on the Republican flag.^[13] The Republic's first piece of business was the Criminal code of 1890^[pt]; the Constitution itself was only written the following year.^[14]^[13]

The integration of positivist criminology by Brazilian legal culture took place gradually, centering around legal scholars in the top law schools. There was resistance at first, and Tobias Barreto, a professor of legal philosophy at Recife law school was especially critical of Italian criminologist Lombroso’s theories of anthropological criminology and heritable criminality, and was aware of the incursions of the medical field into law.^[15] João Vieira^[pt], professor of criminal law in Recife, was the first jurist to support criminological positivism in Brazil, although it took him a while to fully adopt its tenets. Vieira's debates with João Baptista Pereira, author of the republican code and professor of criminal law at the Rio law school was a microcosm of the debate between proponents of the classical and positivist schools in Brazil for the duration of the First Republic.^[16] These, in turn, were a reflection of debate on this topic going on in Europe, mostly in Italy, between these schools. Vieira was a gradualist, and his increasing understanding and support of the new ideas did not translated into attempts to reform the classical code into a criminological one; his approach followed that of Italian criminologists Ferri and Garofalo, who held that positivist reform would be inevitable, but gradual. He took over revising the Republican code, but chose to find improvements by referring to the old, Imperial code, hoping to increase the prestige of the Republican code through links to the venerated Roman code.^[17]

Theory

The German, tripartite system of criminal theory underlies the theory of crime in Brazil, as well as in all Latin American countries.^[18]

English-speaking common law systems are based on the simpler, bipartite system of criminal theory. The central thesis is that a criminal offense is based on two elements: the actus reus, or external action in the world, and the mens rea, or internal mind state, in particular, intent and that for a crime to occur, both elements must be present.^[19] France and many countries whose codes are influenced by French law which do not follow common law nevertheless also use the bipartite system, where they call the two elements the material element (actus reus) and the moral element (mens rea). The American Model Penal Code was a project of law released in 1962 which heavily influenced penal law in the United States, and came up with a four-part division of mens rea, more than most European countries based on the tripartite system, which distinguish between only two elements, negligence and intent.^[19]

The German tripartite system, on the other hand, takes a different approach, with a criminal offense having three dimensions: the definition of the offense (German: Tatbestand; tipo in Portuguese and Spanish);^[20]^[21]^[a] wrongfulness or unlawfulness; and culpability or blameworthiness (mens rea).^[22] This allows criminal defense lawyers to find a particular action as unlawful but not culpable, and since all three must be present in order to find a defendant guilty, that is sufficient for acquittal.^[20]

Principles

Due process of law (devido processo legal) was first guaranteed in the 1988 Constitution in Article 5 paragraph LIV, and provide that "no one shall be deprived of freedom or of his assets without due process of law".^[23]^[b] Other rights include the right to challenge evidence and reply to arguments (the adversarial system); the right of a full defense (ampla defesa, Art. 5 LV); public availability of all court reasoning and decisions (Art. 5, LX and Art. 93 IX); inadmissability of evidence obtained illegally (Art. 5 LVI); the presumption of innocence (Art. 5 LVII);^[c] compensation for wrongful conviction (Art. 5 LXXV); protection from arrest except per judicial warrant or when caught in the act (Art. 5 LXI);^[d] release on recognizance (Art. 5 LXVI); right to remain silent and to have a lawyer (Art. 5 XII);^[e] and the right to a speedy trial (Art. 5 LXXVIII).^[23]^[f]

Principle of legality in criminal law (principio da legalidade) or Priority of the Norm: the Principle of Legality in Brazilian law is based on article 1 of the Penal Code, which states that there is a requirement for the prior existence of law defining the practice of a given act as a crime, without which the perpetrator can not be convicted. Known from the Latin Nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege praevia.^[24]^[25]
Right to a full defense: This states that everyone has the right to a defense, regardless of the crime committed and its circumstances. If the person cannot afford to pay for their defense, the state will provide it.^{[citation needed]}
Principle of human dignity^[pt]: this is the idea that human dignity is an essential value of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution in Article I, III. Examples include laws to punish discrimination (Article 5, XLI) and to ensure physical and moral rights to prison inmates (Article 5, XLIX).^[25]

Current outlook

Brazil has one of the highest crime rates in the world, which involves an elevated incidence of violent and non-violent crimes.^[26] According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Brazil had a homicide rate of 21.26 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2021,^[27] up from 20.89 per 100,000 inhabitants with 43,073 murders in 2019; however, this was lower than in 2017, when Brazil had a homicide rate of 30.59 per 100,000 inhabitants.^[28] In 2018, Brazil had one of the highest number of intentional homicides in the world with 57,358. In addition, Brazil rates second in illegal drug trade in the world.^[29]^{[clarification needed]}

Brazil's numerous ports and its borders with many South American countries makes it a key center of the global cocaine trafficking trade. Prison-based gangs such as the First Capital Command (Primeiro Comando da Capital – PCC) and the Red Command (Comando Vermelho – CV) have expanded from Nationwide and are heavily involved in international drug and armstrafficking. Militias form another pole for violent crime and are made up chiefly of police officers, current and former. They hold sway over whole neighborhoods, committing extortion and extrajudicial killings.^[30]

Structure

The Judiciary of Brazil is the group of public entities designated by the Brazilian constitution to carry out the country's judicial functions.

Ministry of Justice

The Ministry of Justice was created under the Empire of Brazil, through the decree of 3 July 1822 by Pedro I of Brazil, as Secretary of State for the Affairs of Justice (Secretaria de Estado dos Negócios da Justiça.

Under Article 2 of the Constitution, the Ministry of Justice and Public Security cannot interfere in the judiciary branch.

Judiciary

The 92 courts of the Brazilian judiciary
v t e	State		Federal
Superior courts		0	Supreme Federal Court STF	1
Superior courts		0	Federal superior courts STJ TSE TST STM	4
Common justice	Court of Justice TJ	27	Federal Regional Courts TRF1 .. TRF6	6
Specialized justice	Court of Military Justice^[pt]	3	Electoral Justice Courts TRE	27
Specialized justice	TJM	3	Regional Labor Courts TRT	24
Total ^[31]^[32]^[33]		30		62

The Judiciary of Brazil is the group of public entities designated by the Brazilian constitution to carry out the country's judicial functions.

The Federal government of Brazil is defined by the 1988 constitution which defines a tripartite separation of powers into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. Aside from those, the country also has the Public Ministry which acts autonomously and has in the past been referred to as the country's fourth branch.

In terms of jurisdiction, the main division is between common justice (Portuguese: Justiça Comum) and specialized justice (Justiça Especializada). Common justice, composed of federal and state justices (and the Federal District's own justice), handles most civil and criminal cases. Specialized justice, composed of electoral, military and labor justices, handles more specialized cases which also have their own specific procedures.^[34]

Article 92 of the Constitution divides the judiciary into nine organs: four individual superior courts (STF, STJ, TST, CNJ), four types of courts and judges (federal regional, labor, electoral, military), and courts and judges at the state level, including the Federal District and the territories.

There is no judicial organization at the municipality level.^[35]

National Justice Council

The National Council of Justice^[g] (CNJ) is an administrative and oversight organ of the Brazilian Judiciary created by constitutional amendment in 2004 as a part of judicial reform. Among its responsibilities are ensuring that the judicial system remains autonomous, conducting disciplinary proceedings against members of the Judiciary, and compiling and publishing statistics on the Brazilian court system.^[36] The Council has nationwide jurisdiction over all courts except the Supreme Federal Court, but makes no rulings on cases and does not review judgements of other courts. Its fifteen members are chosen by the Supreme Federal Court for two-year terms.

Superior courts

Article 92 of the Constitution named five superior courts. They are: the Supreme Federal Court, the Superior Court of Justice, the Superior Labor Court, the Superior Electoral Court, and the Superior Military Court. Magistrates who make up these courts are called ministers.

Supreme Federal Court

The Supreme Federal Court is the constitutional court of Brazil. An attempt was made without success at the Constitutional Assembly of 1988 to create this court, and again in 1992 as part of the greater push for judiciary reform. It finally became law 12 years later.^[37]

In May 2009 The Economist called the Supreme Federal Court

"the most overburdened court in the world, thanks to a plethora of rights and privileges entrenched in the country's 1988 constitution (...) till recently the tribunal's decisions did not bind lower courts. The result was a court that is overstretched to the point of mutiny. The Supreme Court received 100,781 cases last year."^[38]

Superior Court of Justice

The Superior Court of Justice (Portuguese: Superior Tribunal de Justiça, also known as STJ, IPA: [ˌɛsiteˈʒɔtɐ]) is the highest appellate court in Brazil for non-constitutional issues regarding federal law. The STJ also has original jurisdiction over some cases. Its jurisdiction is provided for in Article 105 of the Brazilian Constitution.

Superior Labor Court

The Superior Labor Court (Portuguese: Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, TST), is the highest Brazilian appellate court for labor law issues. Its headquarters are located in Brasilia, near the American Embassy.

It is one of the five high courts in Brazil, the highest instance in the Brazilian federalized labor courts system, which includes the Regional Labor Courts (Tribunais Regionais do Trabalho - TRT's), at common appeal level, and the Trial Labor Courts (Varas do Trabalho) in the first instance.

The origin of the court was the National Labor Council, created in 1923, which was a part of the executive branch, subordinated to the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce.^[39]

In 1946, the council was transformed into the Tribunal Superior do Trabalho. The Brazilian Constitution adopted that year recognized the TST as part of the judiciary branch, no longer subordinated to the executive. That status was retained by all subsequent constitutions.

Superior Electoral Court

The Superior Electoral Court (Brazilian Portuguese: Tribunal Superior Eleitoral, TSE) is the highest body of the Brazilian Electoral Justice, which also comprises one Regional Electoral Court (Brazilian Portuguese: Tribunal Regional Eleitoral, TRE) in each of the 26 states and the Federal District of the country, as determined by the Article 118 of the Constitution of Brazil.^[40]

Superior Military Court

The second instance of the federal military justice is the Superior Military Court (Superior Tribunal Militar), which acts as an appellate court for the Councils of Justice and also for specific appeals from the second instance of the state military justice.^[41]

Federal Regional Courts

The Regional Federal Courts (in Portuguese, Tribunais Regionais Federais, commonly called TRFs) are the courts of appeal in the Federal Courts of Brazil^[pt], the second instance courts of the Brazilian federal justice system, responsible not only for appeals of trial court decisions, but also for writs of security, habeas corpus, and habeas data against acts by federal judges, motions to set aside judgments, criminal revisions, and conflicts of jurisdiction. Article 108 of the Brazilian Constitution defines the jurisdiction of the Federal Regional Courts.

They have a varied composition, but the number of judges is defined by law. One fifth are chosen by lawyers with 10 years experience or more, as well as by members of the Public Prosecutor's Office, also known as the "Federal Public Ministry" (Ministério Público Federal) with ten years experience or more. The rest of the judges are appointed through the promotion of federal judges with over five years experience, by longest service time and by merit, alternately.

In each tribunal is a Regional Office for Internal Affairs of Federal Justice (Corregedoria Regional da Justiça Federal), responsible for corrections, inspections, and investigations at first instance. The internal affairs offices are also in charge of hiring processes, and instruction towards a uniformization of jurisdictional activity and forensic service. They are each run by a regional director, with a possible vice-director.

State courts

Trial courts

Each state territory is divided into judicial districts named comarcas, which are composed of one or more municipalities. The 27 Courts of Justice have their headquarters in the capital of each state and have jurisdiction only over their State territories. The Federal District only presents the federal-level judicial branch. Each comarca has at least one trial court, a court of first instance. Each court of first instance has a law judge and a substitute judge. The judge decides alone in all civil cases and in most criminal cases. Only intentional crimes against life are judged by jury. The judges of the courts are nominated after a selection process. There are specialized courts of first instance for family litigation or bankruptcy in some comarcas. Judgments from these district courts can be the subject of judicial review following appeals to the courts of second instance.

Courts of justice

The highest court of a state judicial system is its court of second instance, the Courts of Justice. In each Brazilian state there is one Court of Justice (Tribunal de Justiça in Portuguese). Courts of Justice are courts of appeal, meaning they can review any decisions taken by the trial courts, and have the final word on decisions at state level, though their decisions may be overturned by the federal courts. Some states, such as São Paulo and Minas Gerais, used to have a Court of Appeals (Tribunal de Alçada in Portuguese) which had different jurisdiction. But the 45th Constitutional Amendment to the Brazilian Constitution,^[42] in its article four, decreed their extinction in order to simplify the second instance structure.

Second instance judgments are usually made by three judges, called desembargadores. These Courts are divided into civil chambers, which judge civil cases, and criminal chambers. Judges of the Courts of Justice overview one another. A Court can expel any judge who has displayed unethical behavior.

Regional electoral courts

Regional Electoral Court (Portuguese: Tribunal Regional Eleitoral, TRE) is the judicial body that is in charge of elections at the state level in Brazil. There are 27 TREs, one for each Brazilian state, plus one for the Federal District.

According to law, the regional courts are responsible for control and inspection of the whole electoral process in their jurisdiction, from the registration of regional branches of political parties, to the production of reports and electoral maps^[clarify] during vote counting.

The regional courts are responsible for voter registration, for constitution^[clarify] of electoral districts and for reporting the results. The regional courts also settle disputes regarding elections and handle appeals of the decisions of the electoral judges.

Regional military courts

Currently, three states have Military Justice Courts: the São Paulo, Minas Gerais^[pt] and Rio Grande do Sul, the first of which were created following an agreement between the federal government and the states to reorganize the military police and state military courts in 1936.^[43] With the 1988 constitution and the reaffirmation of the military status of the fire departments of the states and the Federal District, the members of these institutions are also subject to the jurisdiction of the Court of Military Justice (TJM).

The main functions of the TJM are defined in the state constitutions, but some are common and exclusive to them, such as prosecuting and judging.^[44]

Public prosecution

Old building of Public Ministry in Porto Alegre.

The Public Prosecutor's Office (Portuguese: Ministério Público, lit. "Public Ministry", often abbreviated "MP") is the Brazilian body of independent public prosecutors at both the federal (Ministério Público da União) and state level (Ministério Público Estadual). It operates independently from the three branches of government. It was once referred to by constitutional lawyer and former president Michel Temer as a "Fourth Branch".^[45]^[46] The Constitution of 1988 divides the functions of the Public Prosecutor's Office into three different bodies: the Public Procurator's Office, the Public Defender's Office and the Public Prosecutor's Office itself,^[47]^[48] each one of them an independent body. In addition to that, the new Constitution created the Federal Court of Accounts (Tribunal de Contas da União), which is also autonomous in its functions.

There are three levels of public prosecutors, according to the jurisdiction of the courts before which they perform their duties. There are the federal prosecutors (procuradores da República) who bring cases before judges in lower courts; the appellate federal prosecutors (Procuradores Regionais da República); and the superior federal prosecutors (Subprocuradores Gerais da República). The Prosecutor General (Procurador Geral da República) heads the federal body and brings cases before the Supreme Federal Court, which handles final judicial reviews and criminal offenses committed by federal legislators, members of the cabinet, and the President of Brazil. At the state level, the body usually has three divisions: deputy state prosecutors (Promotores de Justiça Substitutos); state prosecutors before the lower courts (Promotores de Justiça Titulares); and appellate state prosecutors (Procuradores de Justiça). There are also military prosecutors (promotores militares) whose duties are related to State Military Police Corps and Military Firefighter Corps.

The Office is part of the Brazilian criminal justice system, whose task is to uphold justice. The main job of prosecutors is their duty to bring criminal charges and try criminal cases, but also to request acquittal of charges if during a trial they become convinced of a defendant's innocence. Prosecutors have the last word on whether criminal charges are filed, except in those rare cases in which Brazilian law permits civil prosecution. In those cases, the prosecutor acts as custos legis and ensures that justice is indeed delivered.

It is also mandatory that a Prosecutor to be part of litigation related to underage minors.

Although the law allows prosecutors to conduct criminal investigations, they only do so in major cases, usually where there has been wrongdoing involving the police or public officials. They are also in charge of supervising police work and police investigations. The power prosecutors have to conduct criminal investigations is controversial and, although judges, prosecutors and the general population favor it generally, it is being contested before the Supreme Federal Court.

In addition to prosecuting crimes, Brazilian prosecutors are also authorized, among others, by the Brazilian constitution to bring action against private individuals, commercial enterprises and the Union, state, Federal District, and the municipal governments, in the defense of minorities, the environment, consumers and the civil society in general.

Federal Prosecution Office (MPF) database, the Car Wash investigation resulted in 361 convictions at first instance and billions of dollars in fines and financial settlements with companies involved.^[49]

Public defenders

According to the Principles of criminal law in Brazil^[pt] in the Constitution, everyone has the right to a defense, and the state will provide one if the accused cannot afford one. The Office of the Federal Public Defender^[pt] is the autonomous body that ensures this right.^{[citation needed]}

Police

Police roles

Judicial police

In Brazil, the duties of the judicial police are the responsibility of the Civil Police of the States and the Federal District and the Federal Police, in accordance with paragraphs 4 and 1 of article 144 of the Constitution.^[50]

The function of the Judicial Police dates back to 1619, when the alcaides, carrying out their activities in the towns of the Colony, carried out measures to arrest evildoers, always accompanied by a clerk who would draw up a report of what had happened for later presentation to the magistrate. Later, the figure of the "criminal minister" (ministro criminal or meirinho) emerged, who in his districts mixed the roles of judge and police officer, keeping the peace, carrying out investigations, and ordering the arrest of criminals.

Under the terms of article 144, paragraph 4, of the Constitution, "the civil police, led by career delegados, are responsible, except for the those under jurisdiction of the Union (Polícia Federal), for the functions of the judicial police and the investigation of criminal offenses, except military ones."^[50] They are subordinate to the state governors, through the public security secretariats.

The investigation of criminal offenses is carried out in the course of a police inquiry^[pt] as provided for in the Code of Criminal Procedure. The Police investigation is conducted independently, exclusively by the delegado, under the terms of Law No. 12.830/2013, which refers it to the appropriate criminal court after its conclusion. The Public Prosecutor's Office may request additional measures to better investigate a case in order to file a criminal action.

Police forces

There are three national police forces in Brazil: the Federal Police, Federal Highway Police, and the National Force.

Federal Police

The Federal Police of Brazil (Portuguese: Polícia Federal do Brasil) or Department of Federal Police (Portuguese: Departamento de Polícia Federal) is a federal law enforcement agency of Brazil and one of the three national police forces. The other two are the Federal Highway Police, and the National Force. From 1944 to 1967 it was called the Federal Public Safety Department (Portuguese: Departamento Federal de Segurança Pública).

The Federal Police Department is responsible for combating crimes against federal institutions, international drug trafficking, terrorism, cyber-crime, organized crime, public corruption, white-collar crime, money laundering, immigration, border control, airport security and maritime policing. It is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and Public Security.

Military Police

Military Police^[h] are the uniformed preventive state police of the states and of the Federal District of Brazil. The Military Police units are the main ostensive police force at the state level and are responsible for policing and maintaining the public order. Their formations, rules and uniforms vary depending on the state. Investigative work and forensics are undertaken by the Civil Police of each state.

With the fall of the Empire, the First Brazilian Republic adopted a constitution based on the United States' one, where the federal states have a large degree of autonomy. The Police Corps began to be administered by the states and became small state armies, with infantry, cavalry, artillery, and later, even air forces. This danger to national security remained until the end of World War II, with the deposition of the dictatorial government of Getúlio Vargas.

After World War II, the Military Police became a more "traditional" police force, similar to a gendarmerie, subject to the states.^[51]

National Police

The National Public Security Force (Portuguese: Força Nacional de Segurança Pública) was created in 2004 and is headquartered in Brasília, in the Federal District, as a joint cooperation of various Brazilian Public Safety forces, co-ordinated by the National Secretariat of Public Security (Portuguese: Secretaria Nacional de Segurança Pública - SENASP), of the Ministry of Justice. It was created during the administration of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, as a concept developed by then Minister of Justice, Márcio Thomaz Bastos.

The National Force is composed of the most qualified civil and military police personnel, military firefighters and experts loaned from each of the states of Brazil. It is deployed in cases of major security crisis to augment local security forces by the request of local authorities. It is similar in its regiment, action, and use to the USA's National Guard.^[52]

Civil Police

The Civilian Police are agencies of the public administration of the states and of the Federal District of Brazil, whose function is, under Article 144 of the Federal Constitution of 1988, public security and the preservation of the public order, the safety of the people and of the patrimony.

Each of the states and the Federal District has its own civilian police department, which carries out detective work, forensics and criminal investigation, acting as a state bureau of investigation, while the "military police" carry out preventive police duties.

It aims at the exercise of functions of judiciary police and the exercise of activities of administrative and security police, which are indispensable to the preservation of the juridical order, to the (promotion of the) harmonic life of the community, and to guarantee citizens' rights and liberty.

Correctional system

Prisons and detention centers

Types

There are three types, or "regimes", of prisons in Brazil:

closed regime – the most restrictive type of the three, it is for the most serious crimes (sentences over eight years) and includes confinement to a cell with limited or no access to outside opportunities, as in the more relaxed regimes.
semi-open regime – offers some limited opportunities outside the prison, but requires the inmate to return to a dorm-like barracks every night.
open regime – the least restrictive regime, more similar to work-release in that inmates may not have to be confined to a prison but have certain restrictions on their freedom such as reporting regularly to an officer of the court, attending required workshops, and not leaving their area of residence.^[53]

Conditions

Forced to provide their own mattresses, bedding, clothing and toiletries, many prisoners are dependent on the support of their families or others outside the prison. The struggle for space, and the authorities' failure to provide basic provisions in many facilities, leads to prisoner-on-prisoner exploitation, as prisoners who lack money and family support are victimized by others.^[54]

Brazilian prisoners face awful living conditions. Overcrowding is endemic, with many facilities holding two to five times as many prisoners as designed for. Because of this, many sleep on the floor, or with no floor space, tie themselves to cell bars or hang in suspended hammocks. Prisoners are expected to provide their own clothing, mattresses, toiletries, and thus are dependent on outside support; this leads to contention and exploitation among the prisoners for scarce resources.^[54]

Prisons come in different sizes, with several having over 1,000 prisoners, though the Standard Minimum Rules recommend that prisons hold no more than 500 inmates.The Carandiru prison complex in São Paulo, Latin America's largest, the Casa de Detenção, which held 6,508 when Human Rights Watch visited it in 1998. Most are much smaller, with several hundred inmates each. Most penal facilities are physically deteriorated, some severely.^[54]

Only China and the United States have larger person populations than Brazil. Its 811,000 inmates are a result of a 170% increase in incarceration between 2000 and 2015.^[55]

^[56] Massive overcrowding has resulted, in a prison system where conditions are deplorable by tradition.

Prison violence frequently spills over to the outside world.^[57]

Juvenile offender facilities

Youths are not punished under the penal code, but under the Brazilian Statute of the Child and Adolescent.^[58]

While some politicians, notably Sergio Cabral, have argued for lowering the age of criminal responsibility from the current eighteen in a get-tough-on-crime measure, opponents have so far prevented this.

Rehabilitation programs

Criminal rehabilitation is provided for in article 94 of the Brazilian Penal Code, and plays a crucial role in the resocialization of ex-convicts.

Article 94 establishes that criminal rehabilitation is a right for convicts who have served their sentence and met certain legal requirements. According to the article, the purpose of the rehabilitation process is to declare the end of the criminal and social effects of conviction, enabling the ex-convict to regain their full civil and political rights.

By providing a return to civil and political rights, the process allows individuals to rebuild their lives in a dignified and productive way. The Brazilian legal system invests in rehabilitation programs, offering support and opportunities for ex-convicts to reintegrate into the community and contribute positively to society. Criminal rehabilitation is intended to represent a path towards justice, resocialization and the construction of a more inclusive and supportive society.^[59]

There are many problems with rehabilitation, the most serious of which is overcrowding.^[60]

Legislation

The penal code and the Code of criminal procedure are defined by legislation. The penal code defines what actions or omissions are crimes, and establishes punishments. The Code of criminal procedure defines procedural issues: the role of the police, prosecutors, and courts; who carries out criminal investigation and under what circumstances; formalities of arrest, rights of defendants, rules of evidence, trial procedure, judicial process and decisions, and the administration of sentences.^{[citation needed]}

Penal Code

The current Penal Code of Brazil (Portuguese: Código Penal brasileiro) was promulgated in 1940, during the Estado Novo regime, and has been in effect since January 1, 1942. It is the third codification of criminal law in the country's history, succeeding those of 1830 and 1890. One notable feature of the document is the inclusion of libel as a crime.

After the end of the Vargas Era in 1945–46, a new constitution was created, but the Penal Code of 1940 was not abolished. There was an unsuccessful attempt to replace it with a new one in 1969, during the military government. An extensive reform of the Code was proposed in 1973 and successively postponed until it was revoked in 1978. Another commission to overhaul the Code was formed in 1980. The reform finally took place in 1984, one year before the end of the military government.

Recent modifications include a redefinition of "sexual crimes" in 2009, and the inclusion of feminicide in 2015.

Code of criminal procedure

The Brazilian Code of Criminal Procedure^[pt] (CPP) governs Brazilian criminal proceedings. The National Congress legislates on criminal procedure. Its purpose is to organize the system of criminal justice originating in the penal Code of Brazil and other miscellaneous legislation.^[61]

The current code was written by Francisco Campos^{[es; fr; pl; pt]} and instituted by decree-law No. 3,689 of 1941, by then President Getúlio Vargas, with 811 articles. It went into effect 1 January 1942.

Code reform

The current Code of Criminal Procedure, in force since the Third Brazilian Republic (Estado Novo) period, and the 1988 Brazilian Constitution. Some legislative changes were made in 2008, but the Senate, dissatisfied, established a committee to develop a new Code, whose draft was delivered on 22 April 2009.^[62]

Special criminal laws

The Comissão parlamentar de inquérito, (Parliamentary investigative commission), or parliamentary commission of inquiry. For example, "CPI da Petrobras" ("Petrobras CPI"). See #CPI da Petrobras.

Drug laws

Organized crime laws

In June 2023, a former senior police chief in the Amazon warned that organized crime groups in the Amazon were heavily armed and growing rapidly, and warned of dire consequence for the entire area if they were allowed to grow into powerful armies as had occurred in Colombia.^[63]

Prison gangs based in three major cities have expanded beyond prison walls and become nationwide criminal enterprises. In São Paulo, the First Capital Command (Primeiro Comando da Capital, PCC) and Rio de Janeiro's Red Command (Comando Vermelho, CV) have expanded throughout the country. The Northern Family (Família do Norte, FDN) is active in northern states and some neighboring countries, and controls the lucrative drug trading route through the Amazon.^[64]

Cybercrime laws

Estelionato ("confidence game") is the crime of obtaining for oneself or someone else an unlawful advantage (vantagem indevida) to the detriment of others, by misleading someone by deception or any other fraudulent means. One of several crimes that are considered a "Crime contra o patrimônio". See Penal code, and Article 171. (Estelionato has a secondary meaning of "phishing" in the context of e-mail spam.)^[65]

Criminal procedure

A newly adopted law introduced 'rewarded collaboration' (colaboração premiada)^[i]^[j] a type of plea bargaining involving sentence reductions for defendants who cooperate in investigations. Costa's deposition showed which political parties controlled Petrobras.^[66]

Arrest and detention

Prisão preventiva ('preventive detention') is a pre-trial, preventive detention defined by CPP §311–316. pre-trial remand. It is a type of preventive detention, which may be used in the investigation of a serious crime. A 1989 law replaced the former prisão por averiguação (investigatory detention) which was found to be contrary to fundamental rights defined in the 1988 Constitution. Only used in certain high crimes where the subject might impede the investigation if not detained, or where they have no fixed address or their identity cannot be established.^{[citation needed]}

It is a preventive measure declared by a judicial authority, and the maximum measure that someone suspected but not convicted of a crime is subject to. The measure is taken only when strictly necessary, in order to prevent an accused from committing additional crimes or to prejudice a case in progress (destruction of evidence, intimidation of witnesses, etc.). It can be declared in any phase of the process, from the initial police investigation phase, or the trial investigation (see law 12.403/2011).^{[citation needed]}

Pre-trial proceedings

Pre-trial detainees make up nearly 40 percent of the prisoners in Brazilian prisons.^[55] Less than half of these prisoners are eventually convicted.^[67]

Bail and pretrial release

Because the public defender system is chronically understaffed, 40 percent of prisoners in Brazil are detainees awaiting trial or sentencing. This is exacerbated by the tendency of judges not to apply available alternatives for non-violent crimes. In the state of Amazonas, the percentage of inmates in pre-trial detention is above 70 percent. This results in many detainees awaiting trial are held in the same facilities as convicted prisoners.^[55]

A visit by Human Rights Watch to a prison in the northeastern state of Maranhão found that many prisoners wait months to see a judge. During that time, they face intense pressure to join one of the violent prison gangs for their own safety. The understaffed and underfunded prisons leave new inmates at the mercy of the system, and make the prisons into a recruiting system for the criminal gangs already operating within the prisons.^[30]

Preliminary investigations

Preliminary investigations are carried out by the police forces of the State (polícias estaduais) under the State Public Attorney Ministério Público Estadual), and by the federal police (polícia federal) of the Union (União) under the Federal Public Attorney (Ministério Público da União). These responsibilities are defined in Article 144 of the Constitution.^[68]

The police investigation (inquérito policial) is considered to be an administrative procedure intended to establish what offense has been committed, and who committed, as a basis for possible future prosecution. The investigation can be initiated by the victim, by police authorities who become aware of an offense, or by government representatives such as the State or Federal Public Prosecutor's Office, or by judges. The actual inquiry procedure is not specified by law, other than the goal to clarify the facts so that they may be handed off to the next stage of the process and is at the discretion of police authorities.^[68]

Both the victim and the accused have rights during the investigation, including the right to request investigation of anything that will help bring out the facts of the case (per Article 14 of the Code of Criminal Procedure^[pt]) and to request seizure of assets of the accused to insure payment of any damages accorded to the victim (per Article 125).^[68]

When all the facts of the case have been gathered by the investigation, the police prepare a report (inquérito) which is handed over to the Delegado, who is a member of the police force whose role combines aspects of that of a sheriff and a crown prosecutor. The Delegado receives the report, and in the next phase of the process will examine it and decide whether or not to proceed with a prosecution based on the facts of the case.^[69]

Trial process

Adversarial system

Brazil has adopted the adversarial system as its legal system. It is also known as the accusatorial system (Brazilian Portuguese: sistema acusatorio ) because there is a clear separation between the accusatory function of the Public Prosecutor's Office (Ministério Público ) in prosecuting and judging crimes. This is one of three systems of criminal procedure, the others being the inquisitorial system, and the hybrid system (sistema misto ). In the adversarial system, the functions of prosecution, defense, and judgment are carried out by different individuals or teams. The principle of contraditório e ampla defesa (audi alteram partem) meaning both sides get to present and challenge evidence, goes back to the Magna Carta and is very important in this system and is grounded in Article 5, section LV of the Constitution.^[70]^[71] Because the prosecution has the initiative in beginning the proceedings in the adversarial system, the defense has the right to be heard last. Provision of evidence is the responsibility of both parties.^[72]

There has been some debate about whether Brazil uses the adversarial system or a hybrid system (sistema misto ) consisting of a mix of features from both the adversarial and inquisitorial systems. Those claiming the latter say that there are some features of the inquisitorial system either during the initial investigation^[73] or because of special circumstances whereby the judge may furnish evidence (per articles 156, 212, and 404 of the CPP), or call witnesses (testemunhas do juiz ).^[72] Another argument states that since the adversarial system in Brazil dates to 1941, thus falling under the Constitution of 1937, at the time criminal procedure had a clear, inquisitorial aspect that has held over in part. Some say that given the guarantees in the 1988 Constitution and later laws such as Law 13.964/2019 it's clear that system now tends more towards the adversarial system, and most others say given constitutional guarantees and the CPP limiting the state in criminal matters, there is no longer any doubt that Brazil is currently under the adversarial system.^[74]^[70]

Roles of primary actors

Judges

Prosecutors

There are three levels of public prosecutors, according to the jurisdiction of the courts before which they perform their duties. There are the federal prosecutors (procuradores da República) who bring cases before judges in lower courts; the appellate federal prosecutors (Procuradores Regionais da República); and the superior federal prosecutors (Subprocuradores Gerais da República). The Prosecutor General (Procurador Geral da República) heads the federal body and brings cases before the Supreme Federal Court, which handles final judicial reviews and criminal offenses committed by federal legislators, members of the cabinet, and the President of Brazil. At the state level, the body usually has three divisions: deputy state prosecutors (Promotores de Justiça Substitutos); state prosecutors before the lower courts (Promotores de Justiça Titulares); and appellate state prosecutors (Procuradores de Justiça). There are also military prosecutors (promotores militares) whose duties are related to State Military Police Corps and Military Firefighter Corps.

The Office is part of the Brazilian criminal justice system, whose task is to uphold justice. The main job of prosecutors is their duty to bring criminal charges and try criminal cases, but also to request acquittal of charges if during a trial they become convinced of a defendant's innocence. Prosecutors have the last word on whether criminal charges are filed, except in those rare cases in which Brazilian law permits civil prosecution. In those cases, the prosecutor acts as custos legis and ensures that justice is indeed delivered.

Although the law allows prosecutors to conduct criminal investigations, they only do so in major cases, usually where there has been wrongdoing involving the police or public officials. They are also in charge of supervising police work and police investigations. The power prosecutors have to conduct criminal investigations is controversial and, although judges, prosecutors and the general population favor it generally, it is being contested before the Supreme Federal Court.

In addition to prosecuting crimes, Brazilian prosecutors are also authorized, among others, by the Brazilian constitution to bring action against private individuals, commercial enterprises and the Union, state, Federal District, and the municipal governments, in the defense of minorities, the environment, consumers and the civil society in general.

Defense attorneys

Others

In Brazil, an expert criminal witness (perito criminal) is a public servant, police officer or not, who may play a legal role in a criminal trial. Specialized in finding or providing technical or expert evidence through scientific analysis of traces left behind in the commission of a crime. Crime scene experts analyze crime scenes, identifying, recording, collecting, interpreting and storing evidence, and are responsible for establishing the dynamics and suspected perpetrators of crimes and providing the evidence that will be used during criminal proceedings.^{[citation needed]}

Evidence presentation and examination

Sentencing

Appeals and higher courts

Challenges and issues

Brazil's colonial past as a plantation economy built on forced labor continues to permeate its society today and contributes to an otherization of labour.^[75]

While a majority of the brazilian prison population is represented by a public defender, that institution has been called "incapable of making the justice system observe, in due course, the most ordinary rights of a convict."^[76]

Amazon

Drug cartels ship cocaine into Brazil in the poorly policed border area where Peru, Brazil, and Colombia meet. Expansion of coca cultivation on the Peruvian side since 2019 has resulted in increased criminal activity and violence, including murder, in the Tres Fronteras region. In 2022 a Peruvian police outpost was pillaged and burned, and the authorities in all three countries are overwhelmed and ill-equipped to fight the well-financed and well-armed drug cartels that effectively control this area of the Amazon, where 120 tons of cocaine are trafficked into Brazil yearly.^[77]

Impunity

Political Capture in the Petrobras Corruption Scandal: The Sad Tale of an Oil Giant Monica Arruda de Almeida and Bruce Zagaris The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs Vol. 39, No. 2, Lights Out For Oil? The Climate After Paris (SUMMER 2015), pp. 87–99 (13 pages) Published By: The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy Political Capture in the Petrobras Corruption Scandal: The Sad Tale of an Oil Giant Media Leaks and Corruption in Brazil: The Infostorm of Impeachment and the Lava-Jato Scandal], Damgaard, Mads Bjelke, Taylor & Francis, 2018.

Caixa 2 slush fund (lit. "cashbox two") unrecorded funds typically used as a slush fund for bribery or money laundering.

Overcrowding in prisons

Mass incarceration and overcrowding created a fertile ground for the spread of prison gangs and the related cocaine trade through the Amazon^[78]

"Brazil's prison violence is legendary" according to NPR. "The homicide rate for inmates is six times higher than the national average."^[79] Only some prisoners are faced with it however, since those that meet certain criteria are guaranteed a secure cell of their own and sometimes even house arrest.^[80]

Carandiru Penitentiary^[81]

Tracking the spread of tuberculosis in Brazilian prisons Tracking the spread of tuberculosis in Brazilian prisons: Stanford infectious disease expert Jason Andrews has spent years studying the spread of tuberculosis in crowded Brazilian prisons and surrounding communities — an overlooked global health crisis.

December 16, 2021 - By Krista Conger two rival gangs of drug trafficking, the Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC) and the Família do Norte (NDF) (allied to the Comando Vermelho (CV)) clashed in what was considered the most violent massacre in the history of the Brazilian prison system since the slaughter of Carandiru (1992).^[82]^[83]

Corruption and police misconduct

Corruption is so prevalent in Brazil that it has developed a specialized vocabulary. For example the verb malufar, to steal public money is derived from a politician legendary for graft the verb malufar was created, meaning "to steal public money", was coined from the family name of Paulo Maluf, a long-time politician notorious both for his graft and his impunity.^[84]

Undue advantage

Illicit funds. The term undue advantage is a literal translation of vantagem indevida, from a type of corruption called Recebimento de vantagem indevida: literally, "Receipt of undue advantage" (or "improper gain", etc.) This is a form of corruption, either active (corrupção ativa) or passive (corrupção passiva) involving payment or receipt of improper advantage (economic or otherwise) or the promise of it, from someone in public office, or before or after their term of office if related to their function while in office. The term comes up in several places in the CPP, including article 217 (regarding corrupção passiva), article 316 (concussão), article 333 (corrupção ativa), and others.^[85]^[86]

Slow judicial process

Inequality and access to justice

"...members of Jair Bolsonaro’s far-right government portrayed the crime as the fruit of a local conflict unconnected to the devastation inflicted on the Amazon by his anti-environmental policies and dismantling of Indigenous protections."^[87]

Source: O mito da justiça penal igualitária no Brasil

Human rights concerns

Recent reforms and initiatives

Constitutional and legislative reforms since the late 1980s have greatly strengthened the judicial system in Brazil, enabling successful prosecution of major corruption cases. The reforms chiefly responsible for this new power in the judiciary include the introduction of plea bargaining, creation of new institutions with oversight power over the judiciary and the Public Prosecutor's Office; competitive, merit-based selection of judges and prosecutors; greater autonomy for the Federal Public Ministry and the Federal Police, and greater access to public office for citizens.^[88]

Some of these reforms are incorporated in the 1988 Brazilian Constitution and some stem from legislative initiatives. These have led to huge improvements in the efficiency of the system, especially since the 1990s, and have enabled very major criminal investigations to take place, such as Operation Car Wash which discovered widespread, major corruption and led to the levy of three billion dollars in fines against major corporations, and the arrest of hundreds of people, including numerous politicians up to the highest levels, including governors, senators, and two presidents, in the largest scandal in the country's history, which received worldwide attention.^[88]

Criminal justice reforms

Anti-corruption measures

Acordo de leniência is a leniency agreement between a company and legal authorities. A company enters into this type of agreement in order to reduce their exposure to fines for criminal activity in exchange for something; typically an agreement to assist in investigations. It is part of the Anti-Corruption Act (also known as the Clean Company act), a law enacted in 2014 targeting corrupt practices in Brazil. It defines civil and administrative penalties, as well as the possibility of reductions in penalties for cooperation with law enforcement under a written leniency agreement.

Chapter 5 of the Anti-Corruption Act provides the legal underpinning for companies to enter into leniency agreements with the authorities. It is similar to delação premiada in its plea bargaining aspect, except that a leniency accord deals with a company's assets not its employees (as seen with the Odebrecht leniency agreement).

Strengthening human rights protections

International cooperation and extradition

Bilateral and multilateral agreements

Anderson Torres

Extradition process

Extradition can be requested both for the purpose of investigating or prosecuting a criminal case to which the person being extradited is subject (investigative extradition) and for the purpose of carrying out a sentence already imposed (executory extradition). Extradition requires a pre-trial detention order or a definitive sentence involving deprivation of liberty and must be requested by the Judiciary.^[89]

Active extradition is when the Brazilian government requests the extradition of a fugitive from Brazilian justice to another country, and passive extradition, when another country requests the extradition of a fugitive in Brazilian territory. A request for extradition is not limited to countries with which Brazil has an extradition treaty. It can be requested by any country and for any country. Where there is no treaty, the request must be accompanied by documents as provided for by the law.^[89]

The authority for carrying out measures of extradition and transferring convicted persons is in the Department of Asset Recovery and International Legal Cooperation of the National Secretariat of Justice of the Ministry of Justice and Public Security (Departamento de Recuperação de Ativos e Cooperação Jurídica Internacional da Secretaria Nacional de Justiça do Ministério da Justiça e Segurança Pública) (DRCI/Senajus), the Brazilian Central Authority for international legal cooperation.^[89]

Article 5 of the Constitution prohibits the extradition of native-born Brazilians, but makes an exception for naturalized citizens. Nevertheless, this does not imply impunity for Brazilians who have committed crimes abroad. Brazilian law provides for international cooperation where the country where the crime was committed can ask the Brazilian authorities for legal cooperation for criminal prosecution in Brazil, according to Brazilian law. Proceedings can be opened in Brazil and the individual tried locally as if they had committed the crime in Brazil.^[90]

The United States has an extradition treaty with Brazil passed in 1961.^[91]

Brazil was involved in a US–Russia extradition fight involving Wall Street Journal reporter Evan Gershkovich who was detained in Russia as an alleged spy.^[92]^[93]

Mutual legal assistance

Notable cases and landmark decisions

As a result of the 2023 Brazilian Congress attack Brazil's Electoral Court system has barred Jair Bolsonaro from again becoming president until at least 2030.^[94]^[95]

Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff

^[96]

High-profile criminal cases

Operation Car Wash

Operation Car Wash (Operação Lava Jato) was a vast, multi-year investigation (2014–2022) which uncovered a massive corruption scheme in the Brazilian federal government, particularly in state-owned enterprises such as oil giant Petrobras, and conglomerates like Odebrecht. The investigation was conducted through a joint task force of agents in the federal police and other agencies, and evidence was collected and presented to the courts by a teamled by Deltan Dallagnol, to lead judge Sergio Moro who was in charge of the operation. This spread from federal prosecutors and judges to related cases under their jurisdictions in various Brazilian states. The operation implicated leading businessmen, federal congressmen, senators, state governors, federal government ministers, three former presidents, and numerous foreign countries. Companies and individuals accused of involvement agreed to pay 25 billion reais ($6.8 billion USD) in fines and restitution of embezzled public funds.^[97]

According to investigators, political appointees in state-owned enterprises systematically extorted bribes from private-sector suppliers. Part of these bribes was channeled to political parties^[98] in order to illegally fund political campaigns as well as for personal gain.^[99] The largest amounts of bribes were detected in oil giant Petrobras; company directors negotiated with contractors to receive illegal kickbacks ranging from 1% to 5% of disbursements.^[100]

Journalists disappear in Amazon

British reporter Dom Phillips and Bruno Pereira disappeared in 2022 in the Javari Valley region of the Amazon, a remote area known for its lawlessness.^[101]^[102]

Homicide at the Senate

The homicide at the Brazilian Federal Senate was a historic event that happened in December 4, 1963 inside the Brazilian Federal Senate, at Brasília. The event is characterized by a murder carried out by senator Arnon de Melo (PDC-AL), who tried to shoot senator Silvestre Péricles (PSD-AL) and ended up hitting and killing the substitute Senator José Kairala (PSD-AC).^[103]

Attack on Congress

On 8 January 2023, following the defeat of then-president Jair Bolsonaro in the 2022 Brazilian general election and the inauguration of his successor Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, a mob of Bolsonaro's supporters attacked Brazil's federal government buildings in the capital, Brasília. The mob invaded and caused deliberate damage to the Supreme Federal Court, the National Congress Palace and the Planalto Presidential Palace in the Praça dos Três Poderes (English: Three Powers Square or Three Branches of Government), seeking to violently overthrow the democratically elected president Lula, who had been inaugurated on 1 January. Many rioters said their purpose was to spur military leaders to launch a "military intervention" (related to a misinterpretation of the 142nd article of the Brazilian constitution and a euphemism for a coup d'état) and disrupt the democratic transition of power.<ref>

Assassination of Marielle Franco

Marielle Franco was a Brazilian politician, feminist, and human rights activist.^[104] Franco served as a city councillor of the Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro for the Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL) from January 2017 until her assassination on March 14, 2018, in Estácio, Rio de Janeiro. The assassins were in a car that pulled up alongside the Rio de Janeiro councilwoman's car and fired several shots, which also killed the driver. An investigation conducted by the authorities pointed to political motivations.^[105]

Franco had been an outspoken critic of police brutality and extrajudicial killings,^[106] as well as the February 2018 federal intervention by Brazilian president Michel Temer in the state of Rio de Janeiro which resulted in the deployment of the army in police operations.^[107]

Landmark Supreme Court rulings

Reproductive rights

ADI 3510: In 2008, the STF declared embryonic stem cell research legal.

On April 12, 2012, the Supreme Federal Court ruled by an 8–2 vote to legalize abortion in cases of fetuses with anencephaly, saying that children with anencephaly were biologically alive but that they were not a person, and therefore had no rights. The Catholic Church and Brazilian Pro-Life movements criticized the decision of the court, saying that even with a terminal illness, children with anencephaly also had the right to life.^[108]

In ADPF 54, the STF ruled that it did not violate the constitutional right to life. This decision was significant in shaping discussions on reproductive rights in Brazil.^[109]

Minority rights

ADI 4277 and ADPF 132: In 2011, the STF ruled in favor of same-sex marriages.

In 2020, the STF made a historic ruling forcing the Bolsonaro government to protect indigenous communities from COVID.

ADPF 186 and ADI 3330 : In 2012, the STF recognized the constitutionality of affirmative action policies in higher education. The court upheld the use of racial quotas to promote diversity and address historical inequalities in ADPF 186 in April, and ADI 3330 in May of 2012.^[110]

Free speech

ADPF 187: In 2011, the STF ruled in favor of the right of people to protest in favor of the decriminalization of drugs.

Others

Noting the reluctance of the Bolsonaro administration to investigate threats against the government, the Supreme court (STF) granted itself the power to do so.^[111]

Future outlook and potential reforms

References

Notes

^ Tipo: "'Tipo', como a própria denominação nos está a induzir, é o modelo, o padrão de conduta que o Estado, por meio de seu único instrumento, a lei, visa impedir que seja praticada, ou determina que seja levada a efeito por todos nós. A palavra tipo, na lição de Cirilo de Vargas, 'constitui uma tradução livre do vocábulo Tatbestand, empregada no texto do art. 59 do Código Penal alemão de 1871, e provinha da expressão latina corpus delicti. O tipo, portanto, é a descrição precisa do comportamento humano, feita pela lei penal.'" (Mendez (2010) Tipo penal)
"Tipo, as the name itself suggests, is the model, the pattern of conduct that the State, through its only instrument, the law, aims to prevent from being practiced, or determines that it be carried out by all of us. The word tipo, in the words of Cirilo de Vargas, 'is a free translation of the word Tatbestand, used in the text of article 59 of the German Penal Code of 1871 (en:Strafgesetzbuch, de:Reichsstrafgesetzbuch, de:s:Strafgesetzbuch für das Deutsche Reich (1871)#§. 59., and came from the Latin expression corpus delicti. The tipo, therefore, is the precise description of human behavior, as made by the criminal law.'"
^ Due process: ninguém será privado da liberdade ou de seus bens sem o devido processo legal. Constitution, Art. 5, paragraph LIV.
^ Presumption of innocence: ninguém será considerado culpado até o trânsito em julgado de sentença penal condenatória. Art. 5 LVII
^ Protection from unreasonable arrest: ninguém será preso senão em flagrante delito ou por ordem escrita e fundamentada de autoridade judiciária competente, salvo nos casos de transgressão militar ou crime propriamente militar, definidos em lei. Art. 5 LXI
^ Right to a lawyer: o preso será informado de seus direitos, entre os quais o de permanecer calado, sendo-lhe assegurada a assistência da família e de advogado
^ Speedy trial: a todos, no âmbito judicial e administrativo, são assegurados a razoável duração do processo e os meios que garantam a celeridade de sua tramitação. Supplementary notes: (Incluído pela Emenda Constitucional nº 45, de 2004) (Vide ADIN 3392)
^ National Council of Justice: in Portuguese: Conselho Nacional de Justiça [kõˈseʎu nɐsjoˈnaw dʒi ʒusˈtʃisɐ].
^ Portuguese: Polícia Militar, IPA: [puˈlisjɐ miliˈtaʁ], also known as PM, [peˈẽmi]
^ Colaboração premiada – literally, "rewarded collaboration"; the common name for the legal process known as delação premiada.
^ Delação premiada – "rewarded whistleblowing" (or, "informing"). A legal process by which a suspect is offered a specific reduced sentence prescribed by law, in return for turning in accomplices, or aiding in investigations. The common name for it in Brazil is colaboração premiada ("rewarded collaboration"). The concept is similar to a plea bargain, in return for investigative assistance.

Citations

^ Campilongo 2016, p. PT33.
^ Campilongo 2016, p. PT32.
^ Campilongo 2016, pp. PT32–PT34.
^ 3.1 Pedro I and Pedro II companion website to the 2021 third edition of James N. Green and Thomas E. Skidmore’s textbook Brazil: Five Centuries of Change, published by Oxford University Press.
^ "Punishment and social structure in Brazil under slavery: From the colony to the inauguration of the modern prison. | Faculty of Law". www.law.ox.ac.uk.
^ The Abolition of Brazilian Slavery, 1864–1888, Ricardo Salles, in Latin American History, Oxford Research Encyclopedia https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.733 Published online: 30 October 2019
^ Altieri 2011, p. 4.
^ Dias 2020, p. 7.
^ Dias 2020, p. 2.
^ Dias 2020, p. 2, 4–5.
^ Dias 2020, p. 5–6.
^ Dias 2020, p. 12.
^ ^a ^b Dias 2020, p. 13.
^ Deodoro da Fonseca 1890.
^ Dias 2020, p. 16–17.
^ Dias 2020, p. 17.
^ Dias 2020, p. 17–18.
^ Fletcher 2001, p. 272–273.
^ ^a ^b Fletcher 2001, p. 269.
^ ^a ^b Fletcher 2001, p. 275.
^ Mendez 2010, Tipo penal.
^ Fletcher 2001, p. 272, 275.
^ ^a ^b Altieri 2011, p. 213.
^ Pr-Legality 2009.
^ ^a ^b Altieri 2011, p. 206.
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^ "Dp-intentional-homicide-victims | dataUNODC".
^ "DATAUNODC". Retrieved 20 January 2022.
^ "Countries with the Highest Cocaine trade rate in the World - the Organized Crime Index".
^ ^a ^b InsightCrime 2023.
^ "O Brasil tem 91 tribunais - Para Entender Direito" [Brazil has 91 courts - Understand the Law]. Folha de S. Paulo (in Portuguese). 20 October 2010. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015.
^ DataSelf (8 January 2021). "Conheça as diferenças e funções dos tribunais brasileiros" [Know the differences and functions of the Brazilian courts] (in Portuguese). DataSelf. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
^ Conselho Nacional de Justiça. "Tribunais - Portal CNJ" [Courts - CNJ Portal]. National Council of Justice (in Portuguese). Retrieved 28 June 2023.
^ "CNJ Serviço: o que é Justiça comum e a Justiça especializada?" [CNJ service: What is the difference between Common Justice and Specialized Justice?]. TRT20 - Sergipe (in Brazilian Portuguese). 17 June 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
^ Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil [Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil] (Constitution, article 92) (in Brazilian Portuguese). Brazilian Constitutional Assembly. 1988.
^ CNJ 2006.
^ Pansieri, Flávio (April 2017). "Conselho Nacional de Justiça". Enciclópedia Jurídica da PUCSP. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
^ "Brazil's supreme court: When less is more". The Economist. 21 May 2009.
^ Do CNT ao TST - Breve Histórico(portuguese)
^ "University of Minnesota Human Rights Library". hrlibrary.umn.edu. Retrieved 2023-07-04.
^ Rodrigues Rosa, Dom Paulo Tadeu. "Organização da Justiça Militar" [Organization of the Military Justice]. jus.com.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 28 February 2022.
^ 45th Constitutional Amendment text
^ Law 192 1936.
^ Juarez de Oliveira 2003.
^ "O que é o MP/AP" (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 2011-01-07. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
^ "Temer: Ministério Público é quarto Poder da República". Jusbrasil.
^ SARMENTO, Daniel. "Dimensões Constitucionais da Defensoria Pública da União" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-01-19. Retrieved 2016-10-14.
^ MOREIRA NETO, Diogo de Figueiredo (2016). A nova classificação de funções essenciais para uma democracia eletiva e seletiva pós-moderna. In: Advocacia Pública Federal: Afirmação como Função Essencial à Justiça. Brasília: Conselho Federal da OAB. p. 15.
^ Car Wash” is no more but enforcement continues outside of Brazil’s borders, National Law Review
^ ^a ^b "Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil" (PDF). Supremo Tribunal Federal. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
^ Decree Law 8.660, January 14, 1946.
^ Mestre, Gabriela (2023-01-09). "Saiba o que é e como funciona a Força Nacional". Poder360 (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-01-09.
^ Barnett 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c HRW 1998.
^ ^a ^b ^c Picanço 2019.
^ Brazil’s Mass Incarceration Policy Has Not Stopped Crime, Lara Bartilotti Picanço, August 30, 2019, Brazil Institute, Wilson Center
^ Gangs sow terror in Brazil cities for third night, Laura Gozzi, BBC News, 17 March 2023
^ Zdun, Steffen (2008). "Violence in street culture: Cross-cultural comparison of youth groups and criminal gangs". New Directions for Youth Development. 2008 (119): 39–54. doi:10.1002/yd.272. PMID 18855319.
^ Penteado 2023.
^ Silva 2023.
^ Avena, Norberto C. (2014). "1.1 Introdução ao Processo Penal [Introduction to Criminal Procedure". Processo Penal Esquematizado [Outline of Criminal Procedure] (in French). São Paulo: Método. p. 1.
^ Juristas 2009.
^ Phillips & Watts 2023.
^ Gimenez Stahlberg 2021, p. ii.
^ "Brazil approves stricter legislation to tackle online crime". ZDNET.
^ Arruda de Almeida, M., & Zagaris, B. (2015). Political Capture in the Petrobus Corruption Scandal: The Sad Tale of an Oil Giant. Fletcher F. World Aff., 39, 87.
^ Gardiner 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^c Altieri 2011, p. 217.
^ Altieri 2011, p. 217–218.
^ ^a ^b Dias 2023.
^ Araujo Reis 2023, p. PT30.
^ ^a ^b Araujo Reis 2023, p. PT31.
^ Borges 2014, p. 64.
^ da Cruz Paulino 2023, p. 310–311.
^ Coloniality and Structural Violence in the Criminalization of Black and Indigenous Populations in Brazil, Hugo Leonardo Rodrigues Santos, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192899002.003.001 Pages 201–C11P129 Published: June 2023
^ Godoi, Rafael (July 2023). "The helpless defense: Notes on the role of Brazilian public defenders in sentence enforcement proceedings". Crime, Law & Social Change. 79 (5): 581–602. doi:10.1007/s10611-022-10056-9. ISSN 0925-4994.
^ Phillips & Collyns 2022.
^ Organized Crime in Brazilian Prisons: The Example of the PCC, Camila Nunes Dias and Fernando Salla, Journal International Journal of Criminology and Sociology Volume: 2, NCJ Number 245258, 2013 Pages: 397-408
^ Opinion: Brazil's Prison Massacres Send A Dire Message, Robert Muggah, NPR, May 28, 2019
^ In Brazil’s prisons, inequality isn’t just a condition. It’s the law, Christian Science Monitor
^ Brooke, James (October 4, 1992). "111 Killed When Police Storm Brazilian Prison During Inmate Riot". The New York Times – via NYTimes.com.
^ McKirdy, Euan (2 January 2017). "At least 56 killed in Brazil prison riot over drug turf, officials say". CNN. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
^ Cowie, Sam. "56 killed, many beheaded, in grisly Brazil prison riot". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
^ "The lives of those whom Brazil made rich". The Economist. 10 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
^ Talon, Evinis (22 Nov 2016). "A corrupção no Código Penal" [Corruption in the Penal Code]. Jusbrasil (in Portuguese). Retrieved 30 January 2020.
^ Madeira Dezem, Guilherme; Junqueira, Gustavo Octaviano Diniz; Junqueira, Patrícia; Aranda Fuller, Paulo Henrique (8 January 2020). Prática Jurídica - Penal. Saraiva Educação S.A. p. 417. ISBN 978-85-536-1610-7.
^ You’re looking to die’: the Brazil river where illegal fishing threatens lives: Poaching of endangered species flourishes despite widespread outcry – but sustainable fishing could end the violence engulfing the trade, Tom Phillips, The Guardian, Sat 3 Jun 2023
^ ^a ^b Lorenzon 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c MJSP 2023.
^ JusBrasil 2023.
^ 1961 extradition treaty w/ US
^ Brazil Ensnared in U.S.-Russia Extradition Fight Over Alleged Spy Outcome of dueling requests could shape a prisoner-swap deal to free WSJ reporter Evan Gershkovich, Luciana Magalhaes and Louise Radnofsky, WallStreet Journal, May 28, 2023
^ Brazil prepares to seek extradition of Bolsonaro ally from US Brazil’s Supreme Court has ordered the arrest of Bolsonaro’s Justice Minister Anderson Torres, who remains in Florida. al-Jazeera 13 Jan 2023
^ "Brazil Bars Bolsonaro From Office for Election-Fraud Claims". The New York Times. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
^ "Brazil's Jair Bolsonaro is barred from running for office until 2030". El País. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
^ Brazil former president sentenced to nearly 9 years in jail for corruption, AFP, Le Monde, Le Monde with AFP, June 1, 2023
^ Marques 2022.
^ Schreiber 2022.
^ Jones de Souza 2015.
^ MPF 2023.
^ Akbarzai 2023.
^ Savarese & Masionnave 2022.
^ Casarin 2019.
^ Ruiz 2018.
^ Saraiva 2018.
^ Amensty 2018.
^ BBC 2018.
^ Langlois, Jill (April 14, 2012). "Abortion ban lifted in Brazil for fetuses with severe brain damage". Global Post.
^ Louis-Jacques, Lyonette (May 14, 2012). "Tracking Down the Brazilian Anencephalic Abortion Case, in English".
^ "Brazil's Supreme Court Upholds the Use of Affirmative Action in Higher Education". Equal Rights Trust. May 17, 2012.
^ To Defend Democracy, Is Brazil’s Top Court Going Too Far?: Brazil’s Supreme Court has acted as the primary check on President Jair Bolsonaro’s power. Now many are worried the court is posing its own threat ack Nicas and André Spigariol, Jack Nicas and André Spigariol, New York Times, Sept. 26, 2022,

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Borges de Mendonça, Andrey (2014). "The Criminal Justice System in Brazil: A Brief Account". Resource Material Series no.92. pp. 63–70.
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Gardiner, C.H. (27 August 2020). "In Brazil's prisons, inequality isn't just a condition. It's the law". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
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External links

STF: Direito Penal e Processual Penal: Publicações Temáticas - Versão Integral, brief blurbs on dozens of criminal law topics, from the STF
Legislação brasileira traduzida para o Inglês Archived 7 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine – official English translations of the Constitution, and dozens of other laws
Constituição Da República Federativa Do Brasil De 1988 (in Portuguese)
Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil (in English) pdf; 432 pages
Dicionário de termos jurídicos – from Folha de S.Paulo

[Mendez_tipo-22] Tipo: "'Tipo', como a própria denominação nos está a induzir, é o modelo, o padrão de conduta que o Estado, por meio de seu único instrumento, a lei, visa impedir que seja praticada, ou determina que seja levada a efeito por todos nós. A palavra tipo, na lição de Cirilo de Vargas, 'constitui uma tradução livre do vocábulo Tatbestand, empregada no texto do art. 59 do Código Penal alemão de 1871, e provinha da expressão latina corpus delicti. O tipo, portanto, é a descrição precisa do comportamento humano, feita pela lei penal.'" (Mendez (2010) Tipo penal)
"Tipo, as the name itself suggests, is the model, the pattern of conduct that the State, through its only instrument, the law, aims to prevent from being practiced, or determines that it be carried out by all of us. The word tipo, in the words of Cirilo de Vargas, 'is a free translation of the word Tatbestand, used in the text of article 59 of the German Penal Code of 1871 (en:Strafgesetzbuch, de:Reichsstrafgesetzbuch, de:s:Strafgesetzbuch für das Deutsche Reich (1871)#§. 59., and came from the Latin expression corpus delicti. The tipo, therefore, is the precise description of human behavior, as made by the criminal law.'"

[25] Due process: ninguém será privado da liberdade ou de seus bens sem o devido processo legal. Constitution, Art. 5, paragraph LIV.

[26] Presumption of innocence: ninguém será considerado culpado até o trânsito em julgado de sentença penal condenatória. Art. 5 LVII

[27] Protection from unreasonable arrest: ninguém será preso senão em flagrante delito ou por ordem escrita e fundamentada de autoridade judiciária competente, salvo nos casos de transgressão militar ou crime propriamente militar, definidos em lei. Art. 5 LXI

[28] Right to a lawyer: o preso será informado de seus direitos, entre os quais o de permanecer calado, sendo-lhe assegurada a assistência da família e de advogado

[29] Speedy trial: a todos, no âmbito judicial e administrativo, são assegurados a razoável duração do processo e os meios que garantam a celeridade de sua tramitação. Supplementary notes: (Incluído pela Emenda Constitucional nº 45, de 2004) (Vide ADIN 3392)

[pt-name-42] National Council of Justice: in Portuguese: Conselho Nacional de Justiça [kõˈseʎu nɐsjoˈnaw dʒi ʒusˈtʃisɐ].

[58] Portuguese: Polícia Militar, IPA: [puˈlisjɐ miliˈtaʁ], also known as PM, [peˈẽmi]

[Col-prem-74] Colaboração premiada – literally, "rewarded collaboration"; the common name for the legal process known as delação premiada.

[Del-prem-75] Delação premiada – "rewarded whistleblowing" (or, "informing"). A legal process by which a suspect is offered a specific reduced sentence prescribed by law, in return for turning in accomplices, or aiding in investigations. The common name for it in Brazil is colaboração premiada ("rewarded collaboration"). The concept is similar to a plea bargain, in return for investigative assistance.

[FOOTNOTECampilongo2016PT33-1] Campilongo 2016, p. PT33.

[FOOTNOTECampilongo2016PT32-2] Campilongo 2016, p. PT32.

[FOOTNOTECampilongo2016PT32–PT34-3] Campilongo 2016, pp. PT32–PT34.

[4] 3.1 Pedro I and Pedro II companion website to the 2021 third edition of James N. Green and Thomas E. Skidmore’s textbook Brazil: Five Centuries of Change, published by Oxford University Press.

[5] "Punishment and social structure in Brazil under slavery: From the colony to the inauguration of the modern prison. | Faculty of Law". www.law.ox.ac.uk.

[6] The Abolition of Brazilian Slavery, 1864–1888, Ricardo Salles, in Latin American History, Oxford Research Encyclopedia https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.733 Published online: 30 October 2019

[FOOTNOTEAltieri20114-7] Altieri 2011, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEDias20207-8] Dias 2020, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEDias20202-9] Dias 2020, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEDias20202,_4–5-10] Dias 2020, p. 2, 4–5.

[FOOTNOTEDias20205–6-11] Dias 2020, p. 5–6.

[FOOTNOTEDias202012-12] Dias 2020, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEDias202013-13] Dias 2020, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEDeodoro_da_Fonseca1890-14] Deodoro da Fonseca 1890.

[FOOTNOTEDias202016–17-15] Dias 2020, p. 16–17.

[FOOTNOTEDias202017-16] Dias 2020, p. 17.

[FOOTNOTEDias202017–18-17] Dias 2020, p. 17–18.

[FOOTNOTEFletcher2001272–273-18] Fletcher 2001, p. 272–273.

[FOOTNOTEFletcher2001269-19] Fletcher 2001, p. 269.

[FOOTNOTEFletcher2001275-20] Fletcher 2001, p. 275.

[FOOTNOTEMendez2010Tipo_penal-21] Mendez 2010, Tipo penal.

[FOOTNOTEFletcher2001272,_275-23] Fletcher 2001, p. 272, 275.

[FOOTNOTEAltieri2011213-24] Altieri 2011, p. 213.

[FOOTNOTEPr-Legality2009-30] Pr-Legality 2009.

[FOOTNOTEAltieri2011206-31] Altieri 2011, p. 206.

[32] "Brazil-Crime". Archived from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2014.

[33] "Dp-intentional-homicide-victims | dataUNODC".

[34] "DATAUNODC". Retrieved 20 January 2022.

[35] "Countries with the Highest Cocaine trade rate in the World - the Organized Crime Index".

[FOOTNOTEInsightCrime2023-36] InsightCrime 2023.

[37] "O Brasil tem 91 tribunais - Para Entender Direito" [Brazil has 91 courts - Understand the Law]. Folha de S. Paulo (in Portuguese). 20 October 2010. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015.

[38] DataSelf (8 January 2021). "Conheça as diferenças e funções dos tribunais brasileiros" [Know the differences and functions of the Brazilian courts] (in Portuguese). DataSelf. Retrieved 28 June 2023.

[39] Conselho Nacional de Justiça. "Tribunais - Portal CNJ" [Courts - CNJ Portal]. National Council of Justice (in Portuguese). Retrieved 28 June 2023.

[Judiciary_of_Brazil_ComumxEspecial-40] "CNJ Serviço: o que é Justiça comum e a Justiça especializada?" [CNJ service: What is the difference between Common Justice and Specialized Justice?]. TRT20 - Sergipe (in Brazilian Portuguese). 17 June 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2022.

[41] Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil [Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil] (Constitution, article 92) (in Brazilian Portuguese). Brazilian Constitutional Assembly. 1988.

[FOOTNOTECNJ2006-43] CNJ 2006.

[44] Pansieri, Flávio (April 2017). "Conselho Nacional de Justiça". Enciclópedia Jurídica da PUCSP. Retrieved 27 February 2022.

[45] "Brazil's supreme court: When less is more". The Economist. 21 May 2009.

[46] Do CNT ao TST - Breve Histórico(portuguese)

[47] "University of Minnesota Human Rights Library". hrlibrary.umn.edu. Retrieved 2023-07-04.

[48] Rodrigues Rosa, Dom Paulo Tadeu. "Organização da Justiça Militar" [Organization of the Military Justice]. jus.com.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 28 February 2022.

[49] 45th Constitutional Amendment text

[FOOTNOTELaw_1921936-50] Law 192 1936.

[FOOTNOTEJuarez_de_Oliveira2003-51] Juarez de Oliveira 2003.

[52] "O que é o MP/AP" (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 2011-01-07. Retrieved 2011-01-29.

[53] "Temer: Ministério Público é quarto Poder da República". Jusbrasil.

[54] SARMENTO, Daniel. "Dimensões Constitucionais da Defensoria Pública da União" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-01-19. Retrieved 2016-10-14.

[55] MOREIRA NETO, Diogo de Figueiredo (2016). A nova classificação de funções essenciais para uma democracia eletiva e seletiva pós-moderna. In: Advocacia Pública Federal: Afirmação como Função Essencial à Justiça. Brasília: Conselho Federal da OAB. p. 15.

[56] Car Wash” is no more but enforcement continues outside of Brazil’s borders, National Law Review

[Judicial_police_:0-57] "Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil" (PDF). Supremo Tribunal Federal. Retrieved 2024-09-30.

[59] Decree Law 8.660, January 14, 1946.

[60] Mestre, Gabriela (2023-01-09). "Saiba o que é e como funciona a Força Nacional". Poder360 (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-01-09.

[FOOTNOTEBarnett2023-61] Barnett 2023.

[FOOTNOTEHRW1998-62] HRW 1998.

[FOOTNOTEPicanço2019-63] Picanço 2019.

[wc-64] Brazil’s Mass Incarceration Policy Has Not Stopped Crime, Lara Bartilotti Picanço, August 30, 2019, Brazil Institute, Wilson Center

[65] Gangs sow terror in Brazil cities for third night, Laura Gozzi, BBC News, 17 March 2023

[Violence_in_street_culture:_Cross-cultural_comparison_of_youth_groups_and_criminal_gangs-66] Zdun, Steffen (2008). "Violence in street culture: Cross-cultural comparison of youth groups and criminal gangs". New Directions for Youth Development. 2008 (119): 39–54. doi:10.1002/yd.272. PMID 18855319.

[FOOTNOTEPenteado2023-67] Penteado 2023.

[FOOTNOTESilva2023-68] Silva 2023.

[69] Avena, Norberto C. (2014). "1.1 Introdução ao Processo Penal [Introduction to Criminal Procedure". Processo Penal Esquematizado [Outline of Criminal Procedure] (in French). São Paulo: Método. p. 1.

[FOOTNOTEJuristas2009-70] Juristas 2009.

[FOOTNOTEPhillipsWatts2023-71] Phillips & Watts 2023.

[FOOTNOTEGimenez_Stahlberg2021ii-72] Gimenez Stahlberg 2021, p. ii.

[73] "Brazil approves stricter legislation to tackle online crime". ZDNET.

[76] Arruda de Almeida, M., & Zagaris, B. (2015). Political Capture in the Petrobus Corruption Scandal: The Sad Tale of an Oil Giant. Fletcher F. World Aff., 39, 87.

[FOOTNOTEGardiner2020-77] Gardiner 2020.

[FOOTNOTEAltieri2011217-78] Altieri 2011, p. 217.

[FOOTNOTEAltieri2011217–218-79] Altieri 2011, p. 217–218.

[FOOTNOTEDias2023-80] Dias 2023.

[FOOTNOTEAraujo_Reis2023PT30-81] Araujo Reis 2023, p. PT30.

[FOOTNOTEAraujo_Reis2023PT31-82] Araujo Reis 2023, p. PT31.

[FOOTNOTEBorges201464-83] Borges 2014, p. 64.

[FOOTNOTEda_Cruz_Paulino2023310–311-84] Cruz Paulino 2023, p. 310–311.

[85] Coloniality and Structural Violence in the Criminalization of Black and Indigenous Populations in Brazil, Hugo Leonardo Rodrigues Santos, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192899002.003.001 Pages 201–C11P129 Published: June 2023

[86] Godoi, Rafael (July 2023). "The helpless defense: Notes on the role of Brazilian public defenders in sentence enforcement proceedings". Crime, Law & Social Change. 79 (5): 581–602. doi:10.1007/s10611-022-10056-9. ISSN 0925-4994.

[FOOTNOTEPhillipsCollyns2022-87] Phillips & Collyns 2022.

[88] Organized Crime in Brazilian Prisons: The Example of the PCC, Camila Nunes Dias and Fernando Salla, Journal International Journal of Criminology and Sociology Volume: 2, NCJ Number 245258, 2013 Pages: 397-408

[89] Opinion: Brazil's Prison Massacres Send A Dire Message, Robert Muggah, NPR, May 28, 2019

[90] In Brazil’s prisons, inequality isn’t just a condition. It’s the law, Christian Science Monitor

[91] Brooke, James (October 4, 1992). "111 Killed When Police Storm Brazilian Prison During Inmate Riot". The New York Times – via NYTimes.com.

[cnn-92] McKirdy, Euan (2 January 2017). "At least 56 killed in Brazil prison riot over drug turf, officials say". CNN. Retrieved 3 January 2017.

[aljazeera-93] Cowie, Sam. "56 killed, many beheaded, in grisly Brazil prison riot". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 3 January 2017.

[94] "The lives of those whom Brazil made rich". The Economist. 10 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.

[95] Talon, Evinis (22 Nov 2016). "A corrupção no Código Penal" [Corruption in the Penal Code]. Jusbrasil (in Portuguese). Retrieved 30 January 2020.

[Dezem-2020-96] Madeira Dezem, Guilherme; Junqueira, Gustavo Octaviano Diniz; Junqueira, Patrícia; Aranda Fuller, Paulo Henrique (8 January 2020). Prática Jurídica - Penal. Saraiva Educação S.A. p. 417. ISBN 978-85-536-1610-7.

[97] You’re looking to die’: the Brazil river where illegal fishing threatens lives: Poaching of endangered species flourishes despite widespread outcry – but sustainable fishing could end the violence engulfing the trade, Tom Phillips, The Guardian, Sat 3 Jun 2023

[FOOTNOTELorenzon2017-98] Lorenzon 2017.

[FOOTNOTEMJSP2023-99] MJSP 2023.

[FOOTNOTEJusBrasil2023-100] JusBrasil 2023.

[101] 1961 extradition treaty w/ US

[102] Brazil Ensnared in U.S.-Russia Extradition Fight Over Alleged Spy Outcome of dueling requests could shape a prisoner-swap deal to free WSJ reporter Evan Gershkovich, Luciana Magalhaes and Louise Radnofsky, WallStreet Journal, May 28, 2023

[103] Brazil prepares to seek extradition of Bolsonaro ally from US Brazil’s Supreme Court has ordered the arrest of Bolsonaro’s Justice Minister Anderson Torres, who remains in Florida. al-Jazeera 13 Jan 2023

[:10-104] "Brazil Bars Bolsonaro From Office for Election-Fraud Claims". The New York Times. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.

[105] "Brazil's Jair Bolsonaro is barred from running for office until 2030". El País. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.

[106] Brazil former president sentenced to nearly 9 years in jail for corruption, AFP, Le Monde, Le Monde with AFP, June 1, 2023

[FOOTNOTEMarques2022-107] Marques 2022.

[FOOTNOTESchreiber2022-108] Schreiber 2022.

[FOOTNOTEJones_de_Souza2015-109] Jones de Souza 2015.

[FOOTNOTEMPF2023-110] MPF 2023.

[FOOTNOTEAkbarzai2023-111] Akbarzai 2023.

[FOOTNOTESavareseMasionnave2022-112] Savarese & Masionnave 2022.

[FOOTNOTECasarin2019-113] Casarin 2019.

[FOOTNOTERuiz2018-114] Ruiz 2018.

[FOOTNOTESaraiva2018-115] Saraiva 2018.

[FOOTNOTEAmensty2018-116] Amensty 2018.

[FOOTNOTEBBC2018-117] BBC 2018.

[118] Langlois, Jill (April 14, 2012). "Abortion ban lifted in Brazil for fetuses with severe brain damage". Global Post.

[119] Louis-Jacques, Lyonette (May 14, 2012). "Tracking Down the Brazilian Anencephalic Abortion Case, in English".

[120] "Brazil's Supreme Court Upholds the Use of Affirmative Action in Higher Education". Equal Rights Trust. May 17, 2012.

[121] To Defend Democracy, Is Brazil’s Top Court Going Too Far?: Brazil’s Supreme Court has acted as the primary check on President Jair Bolsonaro’s power. Now many are worried the court is posing its own threat ack Nicas and André Spigariol, Jack Nicas and André Spigariol, New York Times, Sept. 26, 2022,

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v t e Organized crime groups in the Americas
Argentina	Ashkenazum Puccio family Zwi Migdal
Bolivia	Chapare Cartel La Corporación Santa Cruz Cartel
Brazil	Amigos dos Amigos Brazilian police militias Carecas do ABC Comando Vermelho Família do Norte Guardiões do Estado Primeiro Comando da Capital Terceiro Comando Terceiro Comando Puro Zwi Migdal
Canada	See: Organized crime groups in Canada
Caribbean	No Limit Soldiers (Curaçao) Zoe Pound (Haiti) Revolutionary Forces of the G9 Family and Allies (Haiti) Jamaican posse Shower Posse Yardies
Colombia	Black Eagles Bloque Meta Cali Cartel Clan del Golfo Libertadores del Vichada Medellín Cartel The Extraditables Muerte a Secuestradores Los Priscos Norte del Valle Cartel North Coast Cartel Oficina de Envigado Los Rastrojos Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia FARC dissidents United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia
El Salvador	Texis Cartel
Mexico	La Barredora Beltrán-Leyva Organization Los Mazatlecos Los Negros Colima Cartel La Familia Michoacana Guadalajara Cartel Gulf Cartel Los Metros Los Pelones Los Rojos Independent Cartel of Acapulco Jalisco New Generation Cartel Juárez Cartel La Línea Knights Templar Cartel Milenio Cartel Oaxaca Cartel Santa Rosa de Lima Cartel Sinaloa Cartel Los Ántrax Artistas Asesinos Gente Nueva Los Mexicles La Resistencia Sonora Cartel South Pacific Cartel Tijuana Cartel Los Viagras Los Zetas
United States	See: Organized crime groups in the United States
Venezuela	Cartel of the Suns Tren de Aragua
Mafia bibliography

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