Utpala dynasty
Utpala dynasty | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 855 CE–1003 CE | |||||||||
  Location of the heartland of the Utpala dynasty, and neighboring polities circa 1000 CE | |||||||||
| Capital | Avantipur | ||||||||
| Common languages | Sanskrit | ||||||||
| Religion | Shaivism | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Monarch | |||||||||
• 855 – 883 CE | Avantivarman | ||||||||
• 885 – 902 CE | Shankaravarman | ||||||||
• 904 – 906 CE | Sugandha | ||||||||
• 980 – 1003 CE | Didda | ||||||||
| Historical era | Medieval India | ||||||||
• Established | 855 CE | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1003 CE | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | Afghanistan India Pakistan | ||||||||
_Circa_883-902_CE.jpg)
The Utpala Dynasty was a medieval dynasty that ruled over Kashmir from the 9th to 10th centuries. Founded by Avantivarman in 855 CE, it replaced the Karkota dynasty. It came into existence in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent.[4][5] The cities of Avantipur and Suyapur were founded during the reign, and many Hindu temples dedicated to both Vishnu and Shiva and Buddhist monasteries were built, notable of which is the Avantiswara and Avantiswami temples.[6]
Sources
[edit]Literature
[edit]Kalhana's Rajatarangini, written in the 11th century, was meant to outline Kashmir's past. The book focused on the Utpala dynasty in its fifth section. The dynasty controlled the area from the 9th to 10th centuries, coming into existence in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent under Avantivarman in 855 CE.[7][8][a] He depended on a variety of material including earlier historical works, dynastic genealogies, inscriptions, coins and Puranas.[10]
The work has a contested repute of being the only pre-modern work in Sanskrit resembling positivist notions of history; however, its accuracy is disputed—Zutshi and other scholars find the poem to be a blend of "mythical, political, social, spiritual, and geographical" narratives, which aimed at defining Kashmir as an idealized ethical space.[8][11][12][13][9][14][15] Nonetheless, historical accuracy increases drastically from the fourth book onward, starting with the narration of Karkota dynasty; the book—typically the critical edition by Aurel Stein—has been heavily cited to reconstruct Kashmiri history.[16][10][7][9][b]
Coins
[edit]Coins issued by all the major rulers of the Utpala dynasty have been found.[3]
History
[edit]Establishment
[edit]Following the death of Cippatajayapida, the last significant king of the Karkota dynasty, around 840 CE, a bitter power struggle erupted between his uncles. The war between Padma, Utpala, Kalyana, Mamma, and Dharma to seize control of the empire grew increasingly bloody and the line of succession unclear. In the meantime, puppet kings were propped up and discarded, hailing from the Karkota lineage but failing to exert sufficient authority or establish stability.[17][18]
Tribhuvanapida's son, Ajitapida was nominated by Utpala immediately after Cippatajayapida's death.[18] A few years afterwards, Mamma waged a successful battle against Utpala, and installed Anangipida.[18] Three years later, Utpala's son Sukhavarman rebelled successfully and installed Utpalapida, a son of Ajitapida.[18] Within a few years, Sukhavarman set out to assume the throne for himself but was murdered by a relative; finally, his son Avantivarman deposed Utpalapida and claimed the throne c. 855 with help from minister Sura, thus establishing the Utpala dynasty.[17][18]
Avantivarman
[edit]
Avantivarman of Kashmir was the founder of the dynasty, he ascended to the throne in about 855/856 AD, and went on to rule for 27 years until 883.[18] Rajatarangini records no military activity during his reign and frontier territories remained outside Kashmir sovereignty.[18]
His minister Suyya was responsible for several innovations in the field of irrigation and water-management.[18][19]
Sankaravarman
[edit]_with_scenes_from_the_Life_of_Buddha,_Kingdom_of_Kashmir,_10th_century_CE.jpg)
Accession and early rule
[edit]The death of Avantivarman led to a power struggle.[18] Sankaravarman was placed at the helm of affairs by Ratnavardhana, the chamberlain.[18] However, counselor Karnapa throned Sukhavarman instead.[18] Multiple battles were waged, before the latter emerged victorious.[18]
Kalhana notes that Sankaravarman invaded Gujrat with an army composed of "nine lac infantrymen, three hundred elephants and one lac cavalry"; Alakhana, the local ruler had to gift a swath of territory to maintain his sovereignty.[18][23][c] Samkaravarman was married to Sugandha, the daughter of a neighboring king and had at-least three other queens including one Surendravati.[18] He is remarked to have brought cultural as well as economic prosperity.[18]
Despotism and death
[edit]However, the later years of his regime were cruel and marked by rampant oppression, especially from a fiscal perspective.[18] Kalhana described him to be a "robber" who seized profits exacted by temples, plundered religious institutions and brought agraharas etc. under direct control of the crown whilst providing minimal compensations.[18]
Forced labor were systematically legitimized in Kashmir for the first time and not rendering such services was made into an offense.[18][24] New revenue offices were created and an elaborate taxation scheme was devised, which led to the employment of numerous Kayasthas in royal service.[18] Kalhana blames these lowly Kayasthas for driving honest villagers to poverty and destroying all repute of Samkaravarman.[18] Scholarship struggled to flourish and court-poets lived a pitiful existence, without pay.[18] Famines and other calamities became commonplace.[18]
These continued despite Gopalavarman accusing his father of unbound greed and inflicting terrible misfortune on the subjects.[18] Finally, Samkaravarman died in 902 of a stray-arrow at a foreign territory, whilst returning from a successful conquest.[18] His ministers guarded-back the corpse to Kashmir, where last respects were conferred and funeral rites organized; some of his queens and servants died by Sati.[18] Despite having thirty to forty issues, none other than Gopalavarman and Samkata survived past infancy, in what Kalnana ascribed to karma.[18]
Gopalavarman
[edit]Gopalavarman was installed as the new king, with John Nemec noting that the labyrinthine series of coups to start with him would be worthy of a Mahabharata-like epic.[25] He had a short reign of two years (902–904) under the regency of Sugandha.[18]
Gopalavarman led a famed expedition against a rebel Hindu Shahi king of Udabhanda c. 903 and bestowed the spoils on a "Toramana-Kamaluka."[18] However, this victory however turned him haughty and the court became unapproachable for the commoners.[18] Effective power began to wielded by Sugandha's paramour, Prabhakaradeva who was also the royal treasurer.[18] This continued till he was caught in the act of embezzling state-coffers and a probe launched.[18]
Prabhakaradeva employed Ramadeva—one of his relatives—to assassinate the king by practice of witchcraft.[18] Gopalavarman died of a fever soon and Ramadeva died by suicide, after his conspiracy became public knowledge.[18] Gopalavarman had at-least two consorts—Nanda, a child-girl and Jayalakshmi.[18] He had no issue at the time of his death but Jayalakshmi was already pregnant.[18] Consequently, Samkata ascended the throne only to die after ten days.[18]
Sugandha
[edit]
Sugandha seized the throne after Samkata, apparently with an intention of securing it for her grandson (from Jayalakshmi); however, he died soon after birth.[18] She took the throne for herself and ruled for two years—in an environment marked by upheaval of the Tantrins—before trying to install Nirjitavarman, a grandson of Suravarman as well as her blood-relative.[18]
This was met with considerable resistance from the ministers as well as the Tantrins, on grounds of his lameness and they installed Nirjitavarman's child-son Partha instead.[18] Thereafter, Nirjitavarman was retained as a regent but Sugandha and her counsel were ousted.[18][d]
Partha and Nirjitavarman
[edit]Crowned at an age of ten, his reign of ten years (906–921) were under the regency of Nirjitavarman, who in turn was a puppet at the hands of Tantrins and the ministers.[18] The subjects were oppressed and heavy bribes were exacted.[18]
Samkaravardhana, the eldest minister allied with another minister Sugandhaditya to plunder the royal finances; prime-minister Merubardhana's sons accrued riches as well.[18] In 914, Sugandha sought to unsuccessfully regain the throne with help from Ekangas and clashed with the Tantrins in a battle; she was imprisoned and executed.[18] In 917, Kalhana mentions of a flood which subsequently led to a cataclysmic famine; the ministers along with Tantrins made profits by selling hoarded rice at high prices.[18]
Partha had multiple wives, a mistress Sambavati, and at-least two sons Unmattavanti and Samkaravarman II.[18] Nirjitavarman had at-least two queens—Bappatadevi and Mrigavati, who was the daughter of Meruvardhana.[18] Kalhana notes both of them to have entered into sexual relations with Sugandhaditya, in order to secure the throne for their respective sons—Cakravarman and Suravarman I.[18] The entire span was marked by struggles for the throne between Partha and Nirjitavarman and in 921, Partha was finally overthrown by the Tantrins.[18] Nothing is recorded by Kalhana about Nirjitavarman's rule of two years.[18] He died, after having placed Cakravarman on the throne.[18]
Cakravarman and others
[edit]
Cakravarman was yet another child-ruler; the Tantrins immediately tried to install back Partha but in vain.[18] Cakravarman went on to rule for ten years (till 933/934), a few months under the regency of his mother and then, under grandmother Ksillika.[18]
A new revolution by the Tantrins then installed Suravarman I; he ruled for about a year before being compelled to abdicate the throne, after failing to raise the demanded bribes.[18] Partha was re-installed with Sambavati conciliating the Tantrins in his favor but deposed within a very short time-span, as Cakravarman promised the Tantrins with even greater riches.[18] After restoration in 935, he installed Tantrins at important offices but had to flee again, after failing to raise enough taxes.[18]
Following Cakravarman's abdication, Samkaravardhana dispatched his brother Sambhuvardhana to negotiate with the Tantrins on his behalf.[18] In the negotiating tables, he promised even greater bribes and purchased the crown for himself, deceiving Samkaravardhana.[18]
Cakravarman restored
[edit]In the meanwhile, Cakravarman forged an alliance with the Damaras (led by Samgrama) in exile and their combined forces took on Sambhuvardhana in the spring of 936 near Padmapura—modern-day Pampore.[18] Samkaravardhana, who served as the war-commander for the tantrins was slain by Cakravarman himself, in what Kalhana described as a moment of impeccable valor and significance, as the rest were now easily routed.[18] Cakravarman was reinstalled after a victory-parade through the city and he rejected pardoning Sambhuvardhana and a bunch of tantrins, who were caught whilst fleeing away.[18]
His subsequent rule of about a year is held to be cruel and excessive, as Kalhana deems him to have been led astray by excessive praises and from intermingling with people from low castes.[18][28] Particular criticism is reserved for his' granting an audience to Ranga, a famed singer from the lowly Domba caste; her daughters Hamsi and Nagalata are alleged to have ensnared the king in the process.[18][29][30]
Hamsi soon became the chief-queen and began to control the affairs of state by installing fellow Dombas (and people who were subservient to them) at important offices: they became the king's closest friends and their oral commands were as powerful as royal decrees.[18] Courtiers had to eat the remnants of food left over by the Dombas and ministers adorn clothes, bearing menstrual stains of Domba queens.[18][31][32] Sacred spaces were regularly "polluted" by the low castes.[18] Cakravarman's Domba counsel allegedly even made him rape a Brahmin wife during her ritualistic fast, on the pretext of atoning his sins for having engaged in sexual relations with out-caste women.[18]
In the summer of 937, a group of Damara guards attacked Cakravarman in a privy at night and chased him into Hamsi's sleeping-chamber; Cakravarman—failing to locate any weapon—met with his end, in her embrace.[18] Kalhana notes this to be a retaliation to his' killing numerous Damaras, in breach of the earlier alliance.[18] Cakravarman's wives had allegedly urged the guards to stone his knees in his final dying moments.[18]
Unmattavanti
[edit]Unmattavanti ascended to the throne after Cakravarman, with help from minister Sarvata and others.[18] In a regime marked by wanton violence, ridiculousness, and oppression, he was effectively controlled by a minister named Parvagupta, who desired for the throne.[18] Unmattavanti employed Kayasthas in royal services and appointed Rakka, a Brahmin foot-soldier from the house of Samgrama, as the prime-minister.[18]
At Parvagupta's behest, he had his brothers starved to death and his unarmed father (and step-mothers) assassinated.[18] Kalhana mentions of Unmattavanti to have been delighted at seeing Partha's corpse, which was even dagger-ed by Parvagupta's son Devagupta in front of him.[18] Kalhana also accuses Unmattavanti of engaging in a range of dastardly acts including mutilating pregnant women, amputating limbs of laborers, and hitting naked women at their cleavage.[18]
Unmattavanti has fourteen queens and probably no son.[18] He died of a chronic disease in 939, suffering immense pain; before his death, he had Suravarman II (who was falsely proclaimed by the servants of his seraglio to be his own son) crowned.[18]
Suravarman II and disintegration
[edit]Suravarman II reigned for hardly a few days, before being ousted by his commander-in-chief Kamalvardhana, who had declared rebellion from his base in Madavarajya against the Damras (and by extension, the Utpalas).[18] He fled the kingdom with his mother, bringing the Utpala Dynasty to an end.[18] Kamalvardhana convened an assembly of Brahmins to appoint the next ruler, who rejected his self-nomination as well as a request from Suravarman II's mother.[18]
Yasaskara, the son of Prabhakaradeva was instead chosen.[18] This brought an end to the Utpala dynasty and would set the stage for Didda's autocracy.[18]
Society
[edit]Religion
[edit]Avantivarman was a devout Vaishnav in his private life but granted public patronage to Shiva.[33] Vaikuntha Chaturmurti continued to be the tutelary deity of the Utpala dynasty; He was also venerated in adjoining regions.[34]
Art and architecture
[edit]Literature
[edit]All surviving literature are traced from the court of Avantivarman, who was a famed patron of arts; Ratnakara and Anandavardhana were his court-poets.[18]
Shrines and cities
[edit]Avantivarman along with his chief-minister Sura commissioned numerous temples and towns—Avantipura, Surapura and the Avantiswami Temple.[18] Suyya established the town of Suyyapura.[18] Samkaravarman established Samkarapura (modern-day Pattan) and, in conjunction with Sugandha, the Shiva-temples of Samkaragaurisa and Sugandhesa.[18] Another Shiva-temple in Fattegarh has been dated to his times.[35][e] Sugandha, during her rule, got constructed the towns of Sugandhapura and Gopalapura, the Vishnu temple Gopalakesava, and the monastery Gopalamatha.[18] Nanda consecrated the shrines of Nandakesava and Nandamatha.[18] Meruvardhana built the Vishnu shrine of Meruvardhanasvamin at Puranadhisthana (modern-day Pandrethan).[18] Sambavati was responsible for founding the Shiva-shrine of Sambveswara.[18]
-
Remains of the Avantiswami Temple built by Avantivarman, of the Utpala dynasty -
Reliefs from the Avantiswami Temple
Sculpture
[edit]-
![The Buddhist deity Chakrasamvara, 9th–10th century CE. LACMA.[36]](/uploads/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/The_Buddhist_Deity_Chakrasamvara_LACMA_M.85.2.4.jpg/113px-The_Buddhist_Deity_Chakrasamvara_LACMA_M.85.2.4.jpg?auto=webp)
The Buddhist deity Chakrasamvara, 9th–10th century CE. LACMA.[36] -
Bodhisattva Padmapani, Kashmir, 10th century, Linden Museum, Stuttgart.
![The Buddhist deity Chakrasamvara, 9th–10th century CE. LACMA.[36]](/wiki/File:The_Buddhist_Deity_Chakrasamvara_LACMA_M.85.2.4.jpg)
List of rulers
[edit]| Ruler | Reign |
|---|---|
| Avantivarman | 853/855 – 883 CE |
| Shankaravarman | 883 – 902 CE |
| Gopalavarman | 902 – 904 CE |
| Sankata | 904 CE |
| Sugandha | 904 – 906 CE |
| Partha | 906 – 921 CE |
| Nirjitavarman | 921 – 922 CE |
| Chakravarman | 922 – 933 CE |
| Shuravarman I | 933 – 934 CE |
| Partha (2nd reign) | 934 – 935 CE |
| Chakravarman (2nd reign) | 935 CE |
| Shankaravardhana (or Shambhuvardhana) | 935 – 936 CE |
| Chakravarman (3rd reign) | 936 – 937 CE |
| Unmattavanti ("Mad Avanti") | 937 – 939 CE |
| Shuravarman II | 939 CE |
| Yashaskara-deva | 939 CE |
| Varnata | 948 CE |
| Sangramadeva (Sanggrama I) | 948 CE |
| Parvagupta | 948 – 950 CE |
| Khemgupta | 950 – 958 CE |
| Abhimanyu II | 958 – 972 CE |
| Nandigupta | 972 – 973 CE |
| Tribhuvanagupta | 973 – 975 CE |
| Bhimagupta | 975 – 980 CE |
| Didda | 980 to 1009/1012 CE |
Didda (c. 980 – 1003 CE) placed Samgrāmarāja, son of her brother on the throne, who became founder of the Lohara dynasty.
Notes
[edit]- ^ At least three other Rajataranginis were composed in medieval Kashmir. They are since lost.[9]
- ^ Stein comments, "With the accession of Avantivarman, we reach that period of Kasmir history for which Kalhana's work presents us with a truly historical record."
- ^ For more details see Kuwayama, Shoshin (1976). "The Turki Śāhis and Relevant Brahmanical Sculptures in Afghanistan". East and West. 26 (3/4): 375–407. ISSN 0012-8376. JSTOR 29756318.
- ^ The banishment, apparently, was also a retaliation against Prabhakaradeva insulting the Tantrins earlier. Sugandha relocated to Haskapura.
- ^ For a detailed description, see G. Cowlie, W. (31 August 1866). "Notes on Some of the Temples of Kashmir". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. XXXV (II): 113–114.
References
[edit]- ^ Mitchiner, Michael (1979). Oriental coins and their values: Non-islamic states and Western colonies : A.D. 600–1979, Volume 3. Hawkins. pp. 37 (coin 159–160).
- ^ Cunningham, Alexander (1894). Coins Of Mediaeval India From The Seventh Century. p. Plate IV, No 2.
- ^ a b Cunningham, Alexander (1894). Coins Of Mediaeval India From The Seventh Century. p. 45.
- ^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 295. ISBN 978-8122-411-98-0.
- ^ Raina, Mohini Qasba (2013). Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People: Analytical Perspective. Partridge Publishing Singapore. p. 9. ISBN 978-1482-899-47-4.
- ^ Warikoo, K (2009). Cultural heritage of Jammu and Kashmir. Pentagon Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-8182-743-76-2.
- ^ a b Siudmak, John (1 January 2013). 1. Historical and Cultural Background of Kashmir Up to 1003 AD. Brill. pp. 11, 16–19, 251, 262. ISBN 978-90-04-24832-8.
- ^ a b Zutshi, Chitralekha (2019). "Kashmir as Sacred Space". Kashmir. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Especially Blessed Landscape/Peripheral Kingdom.
- ^ a b c ZUTSHI, CHITRALEKHA (2011). "Translating the Past: Rethinking "Rajatarangini" Narratives in Colonial India". The Journal of Asian Studies. 70 (1): 5–27. doi:10.1017/S0021911810002998. ISSN 0021-9118. JSTOR 41302205. S2CID 146160013.
- ^ a b Witzel, Michael (1990). "On Indian Historical Writing: The role of the Vamsavalis". 南アジア研究. 2. Japanese Association for South Asian Studies: 10–11, 30. doi:10.11384/jjasas1989.1990.1.
- ^ Roy, Kumkum (1994). "Defining the Household: Some Aspects of Prescription and Practice in Early India". Social Scientist. 22 (1/2): 15. doi:10.2307/3517849. ISSN 0970-0293. JSTOR 3517849.
- ^ Shulman, David (1 April 2013). "Preface: Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī: What is it?". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 50 (2): 127–130. doi:10.1177/0019464613487096. ISSN 0019-4646. S2CID 220678233.
- ^ Bronner, Yigal (1 April 2013). "From conqueror to connoisseur: Kalhaṇa's account of Jayāpīḍa and the fashioning of Kashmir as a Kingdom of learning". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 50 (2): 161–177. doi:10.1177/0019464613487098. ISSN 0019-4646. S2CID 144762916.
- ^ Dezső, Csaba (2020). "X.1.3: The Kashmir Secular Tradition". In Balogh, Daniel (ed.). Hunnic Peoples in Central and South Asia: Sources for their Origin and History. Groningen: Barkhuis. pp. 296–308. ISBN 9789493194014.
- ^ Biswas, Atreyi (1971). The Political History of the Hūṇas in India. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. pp. 112–113, 135, 138, 143. ISBN 978-0-88386-301-5.
- ^ Witzel, Michael (September 1991). "THE BRAHMINS OF KASHMIR" (PDF). pp. 24–28.
- ^ a b Siudmak, John (1 January 2013). 1. Historical and Cultural Background of Kashmir Up to 1003 AD. Brill. pp. 11, 16–19, 251, 262. ISBN 978-90-04-24832-8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm Stein, Marc Aurel (1900). Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kasmir. Westminster: Archibald Constable. pp. 97–103, 137, 143 (Introduction), 186–232 (The Rajatarangini of Kalahana: Fifth Book).
- ^ Bilham, Roger; Bali, Bikram Singh (1 February 2014). "A ninth century earthquake-induced landslide and flood in the Kashmir Valley, and earthquake damage to Kashmir's Medieval temples". Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering. 12 (1): 79–109. Bibcode:2014BuEE...12...79B. doi:10.1007/s10518-013-9504-x. ISSN 1573-1456. S2CID 96425661.
- ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
- ^ Kossak, Steven; Lerner, Martin (1994). "The Arts of South and Southeast Asia". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 51 (4): 35, fig.25. doi:10.2307/3269200. JSTOR 3269200.
- ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 10, Asia. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1987. p. 128. ISBN 9780870994531.
- ^ Stein, Marc Aurel (1973). "A Contribution to the History of the Śāhis of Kābul". East and West. 23 (1/2): 13–20. ISSN 0012-8376. JSTOR 29755834.
- ^ Sharma, Mahesh (1 December 2004). "State formation and cultural complex in western Himalaya: Chamba genealogy and epigraphs—700–1650 C.E.". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 41 (4): 400–401. doi:10.1177/001946460404100403. ISSN 0019-4646. S2CID 144871096.
- ^ Nemec, John (2017). "Dying to Redress the Grievance of Another: On prāya / prāyopaveśa(na) in Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 137 (1): 49. doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.1.0043. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.1.0043.
- ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
- ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 10, Asia. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1987. p. 127. ISBN 9780870994531.
- ^ HANNEDER, J. (2002). "On "The Death of Sanskrit"". Indo-Iranian Journal. 45 (4): 305. doi:10.1163/000000002124994847. ISSN 0019-7246. JSTOR 24664154.
- ^ VEKERDI, JÓZSEF (1981). "On the Social Prehistory of the Gypsies". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 35 (2/3): 243–254. ISSN 0001-6446. JSTOR 23682188.
- ^ Zoller, Claus Peter (2017). "Traditions of transgressive sacrality (against blasphemy) in Hinduism". Acta Orientalia. 78: 1–162. doi:10.5617/ao.7265. ISSN 1600-0439.
- ^ White, David Gordon (1992). "You Are What You Eat: The Anomalous Status of Dog-Cookers in Hindu Mythology". In Khare, Ravindra (ed.). The Eternal Food: Gastronomic Ideas and Experiences of Hindus and Buddhists. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-0891-0.
- ^ Törzsök, Judit (2012). "Tolerance and its limits in twelfth century Kashmir: tantric elements in Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī". Indologica Taurinensia. XXXVIII: 15.
- ^ PAL, PRATAPADITYA (2007). "Evidence of Jainism in Afghanistan and Kashmir in Ancient Times". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 21: 32. ISSN 0890-4464. JSTOR 24049361.
- ^ Marg Publications (1989). Art and architecture of ancient Kashmir. Marg Publications. p. 85. ISBN 978-81-85026-06-0. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
- ^ Granoff, Phyllis (1979). "Maheśvara/Mahākāla: A Unique Buddhist Image from Kaśmīr". Artibus Asiae. 41 (1): 64–82. doi:10.2307/3249500. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249500.
- ^ "The Buddhist Deity Chakrasamvara LACMA Collections". collections.lacma.org.