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Psychological Effects of Cults on Mental Health
[edit]Social psychology defines extreme social groups as collectives who share ideologies which violate societal norms, typically showing an ‘us-versus-them’ mentality with an inflexible commitment to their group (Levine & Kruglanski, 2021). Cults are a specific type of extreme social group, characterised by intense loyalty to a charismatic leader, a highly cohesive structure, and the use of manipulation for control (Galanter & Forest, 2006). Many cults will use psychological tactics, such as information isolation, thought reform, and social pressures to minimise defiant behaviour and encourage their own ideologies onto followers (Lifton, 1989; Petherick, 2017).
Historical examples highlight the dangers of cults. Charles Manson used manipulative tactics on his ‘family’ to lead them to commit murder, without showing signs of remorse, on his behalf (Guinn, 2014). Similarly, David Berg’s ‘Children of God’ cult highlighted how peer pressure and information isolation can promote commitment (Van Zandt, 2014). But, despite research on group dynamics, the psychological effects for cult members are less understood. This article examines how cult dynamics, such as those in the ‘Manson Family’ and the ‘Children of God’ influence mental health, revealing an interplay of group processes.
Characteristics of cults
[edit]It is important to understand cult characteristics for analysing their impacts on individuals and society. From a psychological perspective, cults are identified by high levels of social cohesion, a hierarchy led by charismatic and authoritative leaders, and their use of manipulative tactics such as isolation and information control (Galanter & Forest, 2006).
Charismatic leadership is one characteristic of cults, where leaders like Charles Manson exploit their followers by using personal charm and authoritarianism to gain power (Popper, 2000). Authoritarian dynamics maintain control and suppress dissent through punishment and threats of exclusion (Pizzolitto et al., 2022). Milgram’s (1963) findings on obedience were influential in showing that individuals can obey authority despite conflicts with personal morals, and further studies have shown that charismatic leaders affect decision making more than non-charismatic leaders (Smith & Zárate, 2015). Applied to charismatic cult leaders, this suggests their authoritative influence holds significant power. However, research on leadership reflects a Western cultural bias that overlooks how authoritarian control works in diverse cultures. For example, collectivist cultures tend to put a greater emphasis on obedience and authority than individualist cultures (Adel, 2015; Catton, 1957), suggesting that current research on cult leadership is not generalisable because cult dynamics vary culturally.
Another feature of cults is social cohesion. Social identity theory suggests that positive self-concepts are a natural human desire which can be achieved by identifying with a group and internalising their values (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Social categorisation explains the “us-versus-them” mentality as members classifying individuals as either in-group or out-group, typically with biased comparisons to favour their in-group (Roets et al., 2015). When personal and group identities merge, the identity fusion heightens loyalty and emotional investment in the group's success (Swann et al., 2012).
Social pressures also reinforce cohesion. As members fear being rejected for dissenting they change their behaviours to what they perceive will be accepted by the group (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955). Asch’s (1951) conformity experiments demonstrate the tendency of individuals to agree with a majority, even when it contradicts personal judgement. When members lose individual identity within the collective (deindividuation), they become more susceptible to group norms and behaviours, including extreme ones (Festinger et al., 1952). The Stanford Prison Experiment illustrates how strong group identities and hierarchical structures escalate authoritarian power to prompt obedience (Haney et al., 1973). However, the artificial settings of Asch’s (1951) and Haney et al.’s (1973) studies have limited ecological validity because the simplified contexts lack real-world complexity and demand characteristics arising from participants knowledge that they are in an experiment can mean behaviours are not natural. These limitations raise questions as to whether these lab experiments can explain complex social influences that occur in real-life cults.
Lastly, manipulative techniques are used by cults to control members. Lifton’s (1989) criteria for thought reform describes how ‘brainwashing’ tactics, such as information control and isolation from external views, are used by cults to encourage obedience and discourage dissent. These methods create a high-control environment, diminishing autonomy and increasing group dependency (Lifton, 1989).
Together the dynamics of social cohesion, leadership, and manipulative tactics form the foundation of cult influence. Charismatic leaders attract and emotionally bind members to encourage dependency (Popper, 2000), while social influence mechanisms, such as conformity pressures, reinforce cohesion and loyalty (Galanter & Forest, 2006). Manipulative tactics suppress dissent and shape behaviours to agree with the group (Lifton, 1989). Yet, these membership dynamics may have significant psychological effects for members.
Psychological effects of cult membership
[edit]The psychological effects of cult memberships are multifaceted offering both potential benefits and harms, making it difficult for members to distinguish genuine support from coercion. Understanding the mental health outcomes from cult memberships will require assessment of these psychological effects.
Although the general public perceive cults as harmful due to their deviation from social norms (Levine & Kruglanski, 2021), members of cults often report initial benefits, such as a strengthened sense of identity which improves self-esteem (Jetten et al., 2015). Additionally, cults can provide emotional and social support which can be powerful motivators for staying in the group (Kanter, 1972). Interviews with former cult members reveal that feelings of reassurance and acceptance by the group were crucial in their decisions to stay (Jetten et al., 2015). According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, belonging is a basic human motivation (Maslow, 1943). Cults fulfil this need by offering a sense of community, which explains the initial positive effects of cults on mental wellbeing. However, these benefits are conditional on compliance with the group's expectations as deviating from the group risks rejection, an event associated with increasing levels of psychological distress (Beeri & Lev-Wiesel, 2011).
Whilst the high social cohesion can provide a place to belong, it also suppresses critical thinking through groupthink (Janis, 1972), where the strong desire for consensus discourages alternative solutions. Prioritising unanimity over rational decision-making may reinforce dependency on the group. Manipulative practices within cults can also have harmful psychological outcomes related to self-government, as they create environments of coercion and undue influence (Curtis & Curtis, 1993). This loss of agency can result in learned helplessness, where individuals feel they lack control of their actions (Legate & Ryan, 2014).
Therefore, several aspects of the cult membership can have psychological effects. However, these cannot be fully understood without considering the social and psychological factors that influenced the individual to join a cult. For example, individuals in cults frequently describe having experienced life dissatisfaction or relationship problems prior to joining cults (Castaño et al., 2021). These vulnerabilities confound research on the effects of cults, complicating attempts to establish cause and effect of cult dynamics.
Mental health consequences
[edit]Cults can have extreme and lasting effects on mental health, with short- and long-term consequences often overlapping. Short-term effects can include heightened stress, anxiety, and emotional exhaustion (Göransson & Holmqvist, 2018), while long-term impacts include PTSD, depression, and related challenges (Rosen, 2014).
Studies with former cult members by Rousselet et al. (2017) found that 61.3% of individuals who grew up in cults exhibited anxiety disorders within a year of leaving, and 54.8% experienced mood disorders, therefore most members experienced negative effects soon after leaving. Similarly, Göransson & Holmqvist (2018) reported significantly higher rates of psychological problems, such as psychological distress and destructive behaviours, among former cult members compared to non-clinical populations. Notably, Göransson & Holmqvist’s (2018) findings were suggestive that the intensity of manipulation experienced played a more significant role in mental health outcomes than the duration of membership.
These effects can mirror those experienced in abusive relationships, where control diminishes autonomy and reinforces dependency. Depression linked to learned helplessness is reported by former members, with the prolonged lack of autonomy lowering self-esteem (Liu et al., 2015). Therefore, autonomy is critical to mental wellbeing, with individuals experiencing greater positive wellbeing when they feel they have control over their lives (Legate & Ryan, 2014). But depression can significantly change a person's everyday life, even preventing them from carrying out what is expected of them (Hänninen & Valkonen, 2019); therefore, it will be important for future research to understand how depression caused by cult experiences can be improved effectively.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is another common outcome for both adults and children raised in cults due to the high intensity of pressures to conform from the leader and peers (Rosen, 2014). Like depression, PTSD can be debilitating for everyday life as it causes individuals to relive trauma, experience panic attacks, and even dissociate from their surroundings (Pfaltz et al., 2013). Therefore, the health consequences of cults should be taken seriously, and treatment should be offered to support people who have experienced traumatic cult life.
Despite these findings, research on the mental health effects of cults faces limitations. Most research focuses on religious cults, leaving questions as to whether non-religious cults have the same psychological effects and consequences on mental health. Additionally, reliance on retrospective methods introduces recall bias, limiting the accuracy of findings. In future, longitudinal studies are needed to capture the entire effect of cults on mental health from membership to recovery, though ethical concerns must be addressed to minimise harm if these to take place.
Leaving and recovery
[edit]Leaving a cult presents unique challenges that can worsen psychological distress. Former members often face stigma and discrimination which complicate their reintegration to society, adding further stress that negatively impacts wellbeing (Dolezal, 2022; Addison et al., 2023). The loss of a stable community and identity upon leaving the group is likely an indirect factor affecting anxiety and depressive symptoms alongside the direct group dynamic effects (Coates, 2009).
Exploration of the mental health impacts of memberships in new religious movements find that current members show desires for being autonomous and having less conformity, however ex-members display decreased autonomy and increased social dependency, suggesting that the process of leaving the group worsens the psychological challenges to rebuilding independence (Walsh & Bor, 1996). However, Walsh & Bor (1996) do suggest that psychological distress can be improved with time and help from support groups.
Additionally, psychosocial factors, such as reasons for joining and leaving, also influence the severity of difficulties upon leaving – for example, individuals forced out of cults show greater difficulties rebuilding their lives (Coates, 2009). These challenges highlight the need for recovery processes to account for unique variations in cases as everyone’s experiences are different and treatment should reflect this.
Currently, there is limited research on effective therapies for reintegrating former cult members. However, there has been emphasis that group-based methods will be useful, aimed at improving external connections and restoring autonomy (Goldberg, 2017). Future studies should ethically evaluate different intervention approaches, making sure not to disadvantage anyone long-term by offering the most effective method found to all participants post experiment.
Conclusion
[edit]In conclusion, cults have complex psychological effects on their members, both during their time committed and after leaving (Walsh & Bor, 1996). While cults can initially be a place for individuals to belong (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), their use of manipulation and control can lead to mental health challenges, such as anxiety, depression, and PTSD (Rousselet et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2015). The loss of autonomy resulting from cult dynamics can have lasting impacts which recovery methods should target. Recovery from cult effects is further complicated by social stigma, loss of community, and difficulties in blending back into society (Walsh & Bor, 1996). To understand the full course of psychological outcomes, more comprehensive and longitudinal studies are needed. These longitudinal studies will make it possible to understand mental health and wellbeing when members are still inside the cult, which potentially could give a more accurate overview of what causes which effects.
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