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User:Sasuke Sarutobi/Military occupation of France

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There have been several military occupations of France by foreign military forces since the country was first declared a sovereign unified entity under Philip II in 1190. These most notably occurred during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, first following the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, later during the Franco-Prussian War of 1871-1873, and then during both World Wars.

Napoleonic era

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Sixth Coalition

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In the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814), a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States finally defeated France and drove Napoleon into exile on Elba. After a disastrous French invasion of Russia, the continental powers joined Russia, the UK, Portugal and the rebels in Spain.

Having retreated from Germany following the epic Battle of Leipzig (or Battle of the Nations), the largest battle in Europe before the First World War, Napoleon fought a series of battles, including the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, in France, but was steadily forced back against overwhelming odds. In early February Napoleon fought his Six Days' Campaign, in which he won multiple battles against numerically superior enemy forces marching on Paris. However, he never managed to field more than 70,000 troops during this entire campaign against more than half a million Allied troops. At the Treaty of Chaumont (9 March) the Allies agreed to preserve the Coalition until Napoleon's total defeat. The Allies entered Paris on 30 March 1814 after a short battle, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons.

Seventh Coalition

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  • Seventh Coalition occupation of France (1815–1818), under the command of the Duke of Wellington

In 1815, Napoleon returned from exile in Elba, arriving in Paris on 20 March 1815, marking the start of "the Hundred Days" until the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815 (a period of 111 days).[1]

Franco-Prussian War

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Map showing initial positions of German and French armies near their common border on 31 July 1870
Main article: Franco-Prussian War

On 28 July 1870 Napoleon III left Paris for Metz and assumed command of the newly titled Army of the Rhine, some 202,448 strong and expected to grow as the French mobilization progressed.[2] Marshal MacMahon took command of I Corps (4 infantry divisions) near Wissembourg, Marshal François Canrobert brought VI Corps (4 infantry divisions) to Châlons-sur-Marne in northern France as a reserve and to guard against a Prussian advance through Belgium.

A pre-war plan laid out by the late Marshal Adolphe Niel called for a strong French offensive from Thionville towards Trier and into the Prussian Rhineland. This plan was discarded in favour of a defensive plan by Generals Charles Frossard and Bartélemy Lebrun, which called for the Army of the Rhine to remain in a defensive posture near the German border and repel any Prussian offensive. As Austria along with Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden were expected to join in a revenge war against Prussia, I Corps would invade the Bavarian Palatinate and proceed to "free" the South German states in concert with Austro-Hungarian forces. VI Corps would reinforce either army as needed.[3]

Unfortunately for General Frossard's plan, the Prussian army was mobilizing far more rapidly than expected. The Austro-Hungarians, still smarting after their defeat by Prussia in the Austro–Prussian War, were treading carefully before stating that they would only commit to France's cause if the southern Germans viewed the French positively. This did not materialize as the South German states had come to Prussia's aid and were mobilizing their armies against France.[4]

After a series of battles that proved less than successful for French forces, including the Battles of Mars-La-Tour and Gravelotte, Prussian troops of the First and Second Armies drove the French back to Metz, where Napoleon III was personally leading the French Army of Châlons. At the Siege of Metz,

On 2 September, Napoleon III surrendered and was taken prisoner with 104,000 of his soldiers. It was an overwhelming victory for the Prussians, for they not only captured an entire French army, but the leader of France as well. The defeat of the French at Sedan had decided the war in Prussia's favour. One French army was now immobilised and besieged in the city of Metz, and no other forces stood on French ground to prevent a German invasion.

When news hit Paris of Emperor Napoleon's III capture, the French Second Empire was overthrown in a bloodless and successful coup d'état which was launched by General Trochu, Jules Favre, and Léon Gambetta at Paris on 4 September. They removed the second Bonapartist monarchy and proclaimed a republic led by a Government of National Defence, leading to the Third Republic. Napoleon III was taken to Germany, and released later. He went into exile in the United Kingdom, dying in 1873.

World War I

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German soldiers outside Maubeuge, September 1914.
See also: Western Front (World War I) § 1914—German invasion of France and Belgium

At the outbreak of the First World War, the German Army (consisting in the West of seven field armies) executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border.[5] Belgium's neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London; this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914. Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August. Liège was well fortified and surprised the German army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. However, German heavy artillery was able to ruin the key forts within a few days.[6] Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian army retreated to Antwerp and Namur, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, falling to the Germans on 20 August. Although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August.[7]

For their part, the French had five Armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities.[8] On 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine.[9] In keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th army toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back.[10] The French VII Corps captured Mulhouse after a brief engagement on 7 August, but German reserve forces engaged them in the Battle of Mulhouse and forced a French retreat.[11]

The German army swept through Belgium, executing civilians and razing villages. The application of "collective responsibility" against a civilian population further galvanised the allies, and newspapers condemned the German invasion and the army's violence against civilians and property, together called the "Rape of Belgium".[12] (A modern author uses the term only in the narrower sense of describing the war crimes committed by the German army during this period.[13]) After marching through Belgium, Luxembourg and the Ardennes, the German Army advanced, in the latter half of August, into northern France where they met both the French army, under Joseph Joffre, and the initial six divisions of the British Expeditionary Force, under Sir John French. A series of engagements known as the Battle of the Frontiers ensued. Key battles included the Battle of Charleroi and the Battle of Mons. In the former battle the French 5th Army was almost destroyed by the German 2nd and 3rd Armies and the latter delayed the German advance by a day. A general Allied retreat followed, resulting in more clashes such as the Battle of Le Cateau, the Siege of Maubeuge and the Battle of St. Quentin (Guise).[14]

The German army came within 70 km (43 mi) of Paris, but at the First Battle of the Marne (6–12 September), French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap which appeared between the 1st and 2nd Armies, ending the German advance into France.[15][16] The German army retreated north of the Aisne River and dug in there, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years. Following this German setback, the opposing forces tried to outflank each other in the Race for the Sea, and quickly extended their trench systems from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier.[17] The resulting German-occupied territory held 64% of France's pig-iron production, 24% of its steel manufacturing and 40% of the total coal mining capacity, dealing a serious, but not crippling setback to French industry.[18]

World War II

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1939—1942: The Second Armistice at Compiègne and Vichy rule

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Main article: Second Armistice at Compiègne

As a result of the defeat of France and its Allies in the Battle of France, the French cabinet sought a cessation of hostilities. An armistice was signed at Compiègne. Under its terms, a designated area in the north and west of France, the zone occupée, was occupied by the German Army; in this region, the Vichy regime, headed by the ageing Maréchal Philippe Pétain, was subordinate to the Germans. Most of the remaining third of the country was set aside as the zone libre ("free zone"), to be fully controlled by the Vichy government. Alsace-Lorraine was annexed into Germany proper (thus subjecting their male population to German military conscription.) Several departments along the Italian border were occupied by Italian troops, while areas along the Belgian frontier were administered by the German occupation authorities in Brussels. The entire Atlantic coastline was declared a military zone, placing it off-limits to French civilians (except for local inhabitants, who required a special pass). Both the unoccupied and the occupied portions of France remained legally under the control of the Vichy government.

French sovereignty persisted throughout the whole territory, including the zone occupée, Alsace and Moselle, but the terms of the armistice in its third article stipulated that Germany would exercise the rights of an occupying power in the zone occupée[19]

In the occupied parts of France, the German Reich will exercise all rights of an occupying power. The French government commits itself to facilitate by all means the regulations pertaining to the exercising of these rights, and to putting them in place with the cooperation of the French administration. The French government will immediately invite all authorities and administrative services in the occupied territories to conform to the regulation of the German military authorities and to work with the latter in a proper manner.[19]

The zone libre

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Main article: Zone libre
Occupied France during World War II, showing German and Italian occupation zones, the zone occupée, the zone libre, the Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France, annexed Alsace-Lorraine, and the zone interdites.

The zone libre constituted a land area of 246,618 square kilometres, approximately 45% of France, and included approximately 33% of the total French labour force. The ligne de démarcation passed through 13 of the 90 departments:[20][21]

The zone occupée

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Main article: Zone occupée

Alsace-Lorraine

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Alsace-Lorraine annexed by Germany as Elsaß-Lothringen

Belgium and Northern France

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Italian occupation of south-east France

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Main articles: Italian invasion of France and Italian-occupied France

On June 24, 1940, two days after the armistice with Germany, the Vichy government signed an armistice with the Italians at the villa Incisa in Olgiata near Rome, instituting a zone of Italian occupation.[22] The Italian occupation zone concerned certain border areas conquered by Italian troops, including Menton. This zone was of limited importance, comprising 800 square kilometeres and 28,000 inhabitants.[23] Four departments were partially covered by the Italian occupation: Alpes-Maritimes, Basses-Alpes (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence since 1970), Hautes-Alpes and Savoie.[23]

In addition, a demilitarized zone was established containing all French territory within 50 km from the zone of Italian occupation. The department of Corsica (split into two departments since 1976) was neither occupied nor demilitarized by any provision of the armistice (although it was occupied by Italy after Case Anton).

1942—1944: Operation Anton

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German panzertruppen watch a burning French warship, probably the cruiser Colbert.
Main article: Case Anton

Following the Allied landings in French North Africa on 8 November 1942 (Operation Torch), Adolf Hitler could not risk an exposed flank on the French Mediterranean. Hitler held a final conversation with French Premier Pierre Laval, then gave orders for Corsica to be occupied on 11 November, and Vichy France the following day.

By the evening of 10 November 1942, Axis forces had completed their preparations for Anton. The German First Army advanced from the Atlantic coast, parallel to the Spanish border, while the German Seventh Army advanced from central France towards Vichy and Toulon—both armies under the command of General Johannes Blaskowitz. The Italian 4th Army occupied the French Riviera and an Italian division landed on Corsica. By the evening of 11 November, German tanks had reached the Mediterranean coast.

Vichy France limited its active resistance to radio broadcasts objecting to the violation of the armistice of 1940. The 50,000-strong Vichy French Army initially took defensive positions around Toulon, but when confronted by German demands to disband, they lacked the military capability to resist the Axis forces.

The Germans formulated Operation Lila with the aim of capturing intact the demobilised French fleet at Toulon. French naval commanders, however, managed to delay the Germans by negotiation and subterfuge long enough to scuttle their ships on 27 November, before the Germans could seize them, preventing three battleships, seven cruisers, 28 destroyers and 20 submarines from falling into the hands of the Axis powers. While the German Naval War Staff were disappointed, Adolf Hitler considered that the elimination of the French fleet sealed the success of Operation Anton.[24] The destruction of the fleet also denied it to Charles de Gaulle and the Free French Forces.

1944—1945

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References

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Notes and citations

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  1. ^ Histories differ over the start and end dates of the Hundred Days; another popular period is from 1 March, when Napoleon I landed in France, to his defeat at Waterloo on 18 June.
  2. ^ Howard 1991, p. 78.
  3. ^ Wawro 2003, pp. 66–67.
  4. ^ Howard 1991, pp. 47, 48, 60.
  5. ^ Various 2003, p. 159.
  6. ^ Griffith 2004, p. 9.
  7. ^ Griffiths 1986, pp. 22–24, 25–26.
  8. ^ Various 2003, p. 254.
  9. ^ Griffiths 2003, p. 30.
  10. ^ Griffiths 1986, pp. 29–30.
  11. ^ Smith, Audoin-Rouzeau & Becker 2003, p. 33.
  12. ^ Described as such in the following books:
    • John Horne (2010). A companion to World War I. John Wiley and Sons. p. 265. ISBN 978-1-4051-2386-0.
    • Susan R. Grayzel (2002). Women and the First World War. Longman. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-582-41876-9.
    • Nicoletta Gullace (2002). The blood of our sons: men, women, and the renegotiation of British citizenship during the Great War. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-312-29446-5.
    • Kimberly Jensen (2008). Mobilizing Minerva: American women in the First World War. University of Illinois Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-252-07496-7.
    • Thomas F. Schneider (2007). "Huns" vs. "Corned beef": representations of the other in American and German literature and film on World War I. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 32. ISBN 978-3-89971-385-5.
    • Annette F. Timm; Joshua A. Sanborn (2007). Gender, sex and the shaping of modern Europe: a history from the French Revolution to the present day. Berg. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-84520-357-3.
    • Joseph R. Conlin (2008). The American Past. Cengage Learning. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-495-56622-9.
  13. ^ Zuckerman 2004, p. 23.
  14. ^ Terraine 2002, pp. 78–175.
  15. ^ Mombauer, Annika (2006). "The Battle of the Marne: Myths and Reality of Germany's "Fateful Battle"". The Historian. 68 (4): 747–769. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2006.00166.x. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  16. ^ Totten, Michael. "The Taxicabs of Paris and the French Defense at the Marne". Retrieved 17 December 2013.
  17. ^ Griffiths 1986, pp. 31–37.
  18. ^ Kennedy 1989, pp. 265–6.
  19. ^ a b La convention d'armistice, sur le site de l'Université de Perpignan, mjp.univ-perp.fr, consulté le 29 novembre 2008.
  20. ^ ""La ligne de démarcation", Collection « Mémoire et Citoyenneté », No.7" (PDF)., sur le site du ministère de la Défense defense.gouv.fr. Consulté le 24 octobre 2008.
  21. ^ Éric Alary, La Ligne de démarcation (1940-1944), PUF, collection Que sais-je?, no.3045, 1995, p4.
  22. ^ Giorgio Rochat, (trad. Anne Pilloud), La campagne italienne de juin 1940 dans les Alpes occidentales, Revue historique des armées, No. 250, 2008, pp77-84, sur le site du Service historique de la Défense, rha.revues.org. Mis en ligne le 6 juin 2008, consulté le 24 octobre 2008.
  23. ^ a b Jacques Delperrié de Bayac, Le royaume du maréchal : histoire de la zone libre, Éditions Robert Laffont, 1975, p. 14.
  24. ^ Deist, Maier et al., p. 827

Bibliography

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