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Career of Nizam ul Mulk, Asaf Jah I

Background

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Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan (also known as Nizam) was the son of Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung I and Wazir in nissa ( Safia Khanum )-married in 1670. Nizams's mother was the daughter of Sa’dullah Khan the Grand vizier (1645-1656) of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, during his tenure construction of Taj Mahal was completed.[1][2] While through his father he is a descendant of Abu Bakr the first caliph of Islam, his ancestry is traced from Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi (1145–1234). His great-grandfather Alam Sheikh was a Sufi saint of Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan) he was titled as Azam ul Ulama by Imam Quli Khan (1611–1642) of Khanate of Bukhara. His grandfather Kilich Khan hailed from Samarkand in present-day Uzbekistan.[3] In 1654, Kilich Khan came to India for the first time while on his way to the Hajj (Islamic pilgrimage) during the reign of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. After completing the pilgrimage, he migrated to India and joined erstwhile Mughal prince Aurangzeb's army in Deccan in 1657.[4] Khan fought in the Battle of Samugarh which ended with the defeat of Aurangzeb's brother Dara Shikoh.[5] Besides being a commander in Aurangzeb's army, he also served as governor of Zafarabad (present-day Bidar).[6] Khan's eldest son and Nizam-ul-Mulk's father was Feroze Jung.[7] Jung migrated to India in 1669, and got employed in Aurangzeb's army, raised a General and later as governor of Gujarat.[8][9]

Early life

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He was born on 11 August 1671 as Mir Qamaruddin Khan to Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung I and his first wife Safia Khanum (Wazir unnisa Begum) at Agra, the name was given to him by the Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb.[10][11] His grandfathers were both important Mughal courtiers namely; General Kilich Khan (Paternal) and Grand vizier Saadullah Khan (Maternal).

Mir Qamaruddin was educated privately. In 1677 aged six, Mir Qumaruddin accompanied his father to the Mughal court. Aurangzeb awarded him a Mansab. Mir Qamaruddin displayed considerable skill as a warrior and in his teens he began acompanying his father into battles, for which Mir Qamaruddin Khan received a rank of 400 zaat and 100 Sowar in 1684.[11] In 1688 aged 17 he joined his father in the successful assault on the fort of Adoni and was promoted to the rank of 2000 zaat and 500 Sowar and presented with the finest Arab steed with gold trappings and a pastille perfumed with ambergris from the Mughal court. In 1690 aged 19 he was bestowed with the title Chin Qilich Khan (boy swordsman) and was gifted with a female elephant by Aurangazeb. In 1693, the Marathas sieged the Panhala Fort. In response, Mir Qamaruddin fought and defeated the Marathas at Karad. 30 Marathas were taken as prisoners.[12] In 1698, Aurangzeb sent Mir Qamaruddin to put down a revolt at Nagori, near Bijapur. The emperor was satisfied with his expedition and subsequently sent him to Kotha to restore order. Following his success, he was raised to a rank of 3,000 zaat and 500 Sowar. In 1699 Aurangzeb promoted him to 3,500 zaat and 3,000 Sowar. Mir Qumaruddin successfully sieged the Panhala Fort which was occupied by the Marathas. He closed all the roads as a result of which no supply could reach the inhabitants.[12] The fort fell to his forces on 9 June 1700. Satisfied with his services, Aurangzeb made him the faujdar (garrison commander) of Bijapur and increased his rank by 400 "Sowar".[13]

Later Mughals

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The disintegration of the Mughal empire which Aurangzeb had well established, began upon Aurangzeb's death in 1707. The Sayyid brothers-(Syed Hussain Ali Khan and Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha) became highly influential in the Mughal Court after Aurangzeb's death and became king makers during the anarchy following the death of emperor Aurangzeb in 1707.[14] They created ruckus in the Mughal court by eliminating and appointing new emperor one after other. When Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) died, his successor Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) was assassinated and his nephew Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719) became the emperor with the support of Sayyid brothers, Farrukhsiyar was later blinded, deposed and murdered and his first cousin Rafi ud-Darajat (February-June 1719) became Emperor and died of lung disease, when his elder brother Rafi ud-Daulah (June-September 1719) became Emperor who also died of lung disease, thus Muhammad Shah (1719–1748) the grandson of Bahadur Shah I from his fourth son Jahan Shah ascended the throne at the age of 17 years with Sayyid Brothers as his regents.[15]

Later Mughals and Asaf Jah

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After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, Asaf Jah was appointed Governor of Oudh. After Bahadur Shah I's death in 1712 Asaf Jah opted for a private life in Delhi. His sabbatical was cut short when in 1714 Farrukhsiyar appointed Asaf Jah I as Viceroy of the Deccan—(administrator of six Mughal governorates) with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk (Administrator of the Realm) and Fateh Jung.[16] In 1719, Asaf Jah was then called upon by Farrukhsiyar to help fight off the Sayyid Brothers, Farrukhsiyar lost his strife against the Sayyid Brothers and was killed in 1719. In due course from 1719 to 1722, Asaf Jah I was on a mission to eradicate the Sayyid brothers from Mughal court and to make this happen he organized and promoted Central asian nobels in the Mughal court against the Sayyid brothers, in 1720 he captured the forts of Asirgarh and Burhanpur in Deccan and killed Mir Alam Ali Khan, the adopted son of Sayyid Hussain Ali Khan, who was the Deputy Subahdar of the Deccan. Muhammad Shah with the help of Asaf Jah, got Syed Hussain Ali Khan murdered in 1720 and Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha poisoned in 1722, Muhammad Shah assumed as independant Mughal Emperor and as a reward in 1722, Asaf Jah was appointed as Grand Vazir (Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire. As a Grand Vazir Asaf Jah's attempts to reform the court corruption which created for him many enemies. In 1723, Asaf Jah differences with the court noble increased and alarmed with his growing power, Muhammad Shah transferred him from the court of Delhi to Awadh. Nizam rebelled against the order, resigned as the Grand vizier left all imperial responsibilities and marched towards the Deccan by the end of the year 1723.[17][16][18][19] Under the influence of Asaf Jah's opponents, Muhammad Shah issued a decree to Mubariz Khan-the Governor of Hyderabad, to stop Asaf Jah which resulted in the Battle of Shakar Kheda.[18] In 1724, Asaf Jah I defeated Mubariz Khan and in response the Mughal emperor recognized him as the viceroy of the Deccan.[20]


Under Mughal Emperors

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Governor of Bijapur

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Mir Qamaruddin became the subahdar (governor) of Bijapur in 1702 and was awarded with a steed by Emperor Aurangzeb. In the same year, he was also given the faujdari of Azamnagar and Belgaum. In 1704, he became the faujdar of Nusratabad and Mudgal.[13] In 1705 Mir Qumaruddin was survived the attacks during the Siege of Wagingera Fort, and led an assault in the hillock of Lal Tikri.[21] He attacked the Marathas who were attempting to provide supplies to the besieged inhabitants at Vardhangad Fort". The Marathas were ultimately defeated. Mir Qamaruddin was raised to a rank of 5,000 zaat and 5,000 "Sowar" for his performance in the siege. He was also awarded with a jewelled sabre and an elephant.[22]

Viceroy of the Deccan

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On 10 January 1713 Mughal prince Farrukhsiyar defeated Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah in the Battle of Agra and later killed him, One of Mughal general Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung aided and intrigues Jahandar Shah after the death of his father Bahadur Shah I in 1712 to overcame all his brothers-(including the battle in which Azim-ush-Shan father of Farrukhsiyar was drowned in the Ravi River) and ascended the throne of Mughal Emperor, in return Zulfiqar Khan was made Grand vizier, "Amir-ul-Umara" and Viceroy of the Deccan all at once. Zulfiqar Khan was captured and strangled to death in 1713 AD with the orders of Farrukhsiyar.[23][24]

In 1713 Farrukhsiyar appointed Mir Qumaruddin as Viceroy of the Deccan—(administrator of six Mughal governorates) and Faujdar of Carnatic region with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk (Administrator of the Realm) and Fateh Jung (Conqueror of battles).[25] He was a competent diplomatic person and accomplished his responsibilities very well, he eventually organized the administration, augmented finances and obtained full control over the Deccan including Carnatic region, the Nizam abrogated Maratha's from collecting Chauth in the region under his control which was granted by his predecessors. Nizam had been with Aurangzeb throughout his Deccan campaign. He was aware of the territory as well as the native communities for which he avoided direct confrontation with the Marathas and locals, rather he reduced the growing influence of Maratha's in Deccan by bringing Sambhaji II of Kolhapur to his side and appointing the rival Maratha generals (Maratha generals, Candrasen Jadhav, Sultanji Nimbalkar and Raja Rambha Rao Bahadur) under his services.[26][27][28][24][29][30] In 1715 AD, Farrukhsiyar under the influence of Sayyed brothers, call back Nizam to Delhi, and replaced Syed Hussain Ali Khan (one among the Sayyed brothers) as the viceroy of Deccan.[31][32]

Governor of Malwa-challenges-restoring Emperror

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The Sayyid brothers became the sole authority of Mughal court reducing the status of the Turkic and the Irani noblemen. As a result, they formed a force of counter-revolution against the Sayyid brothers. The head of the Counter revolution was the Nizam. To subdue the counter-revolution, the Sayyid brothers shifted Nizam-ul-mulk from Delhi. In 1715 AD, the Nizam was appointed as the Governor of Malwa-(cental India), a lessor position than previous post. in 1716 AD Nizam unwillingly accepted the new post so that he can reinforce his forces against the Sayyid brothers and to check and halt the increasing influence of Marathas in the central India region.

In 1719, Nizam got suspicious against the machination of Sayyed brothers and understood there intentions to take over Mughal Empire. When two of the Mughal Emperors died simultaneously with in a year due to same ailment and Muhammad Shah the 18-year-old Mughal prince was appointed Mughal Emperor and Sayyid Brothers as regent to the Mughal Emperor, the Nizam commence full-fledged preparation to launch an armed action against them. When Sayyid Brothers learned about the Nizams situation, they got furious and issue an imperial order asking the Nizam to report in Delhi, and alternately they planned an attack on Nizam in case if he do not report. Meanwhile Nizam received a secret communication from Mughal empress mother "resist the Sayyids, and you will find yourself a place of honour in the history of Mughals, May Allah help you in a war of righteous against suppression", and later a secret communication was sent by Emperor Muhammad Shah to get him relive from the atrocities of Sayyid Brothers. Nizam convinced with Sayyid Brothers planning and refused to report in Delhi and decided to eliminate Sayyid brothers.[27]

In Delhi Sayyid brothers released imperial order to attack Nizma's forces from two fronts, thus dispatched 20,000 imperial army of Delhi lead by Dilawar Khan to attack from North and Army of Governor of Aurangabad lead by Alim Ali-(the adopted son of Syed Hussain Ali Khan) to attack from South. Nizam being a military strategist rather than marching towards Delhi he decided to move southwards to the Deccan where he have many sympathizers to support. The Nizam utilizing his diplomatic manipulation occupied Asirgarh Fort from Mughals, and left Ujjain towards Burhanpur. His army clashed with Dilawar Khan aided by Maratha reinforcement near Burhanpur (Khandwa) in June 1720, Dilawar Khan and Marathas were defeated and Nizam tookover Burhnpur. Sayyed brothers hopeless with the battle result issued an imperial order appointing Nizam as Viceroy of Deccan.[25][27]

Mughal empress mother alarmed Nizam that "Plans are already being made to mount a strong invasion of the south, be on your guard" meanwhile Sayyed brothers ordered Alim Ali-(Uninformed by Sayyed brothers about Nizam’s appointment as Viceroy of Deccan) to march towards Nizam and stop him from reaching Aurangabad. Nizam wanted to avoid any war against a 20 year old Alim Ali, and sent his envoy, but all his efforst to avoid war went vain when in July 1720 AD Alim Ali approach with his army, though Alim Ali fought with bravery he lost against Nizams well equipped army. Frustrated with the defeat of Alim Ali, Sayyed brothers now decided to attack with much larger imperial army of 50,000 lead by Emperor Muhammad Shah, they decided to move towards south by collecting reinformcement from Rajputana. While Mughal army was encamped in the outskirts of Delhi, a plot was devised against the Sayyid brothers and a section of Nizam's sympathizer a Turcic soldier assasinated commander and chief of the Mughal Army Sayyid Hussain (one of Sayyed Brothers) on 9 October 1720. When Abdullah Khan was informed about the death of his brother, he became furious and march towards Delhi from Agra to avenge his brother's murder, he led an army against the Emperor Muhammad Shah with his own puppet Emperor, Ibrahim. Muhammad Shah assigned Nizam's uncle and sympathizer Muhammad Amin Khan Turani to march towrads Agara to deal with Abdullah Khan, the battle was fought near Hasanpur, most of Abdullah Khan army deserted him, Abdullah Khan personally fought on foot following the Barha tradition and was captured in November 1720, and eventually being poisoned while in captivity. Muhammad Shah was coronated as Emperor without any regent and Muhammad Amin Khan Turani was appointed as first Grand vizier. [33][34][25][27] Nizam choose to continued his stay in Deccan and when Muhammad Amin Khan Turani died in 1721, he was offered to be Grand vizier of Mughal Empire.

Grand Vizier of Mughal Empire

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In 1721 AD, Nizam ul-Mulk was rewarded for eliminating the Sayyid Brothers with the post of Wakil E Mutlaq Grand vizier in the court of Muhammad Shah, the 18-year-old successor. Nizam's desire to restore the decorum of Mughals lapsed when some courtiers, cliques of corrupt concubines and eunuchs along with harlots and jesters who were the Emperor's constant companions became Nizams enemy and coercively built distrust in the mind of Emperor about Nizam's growing power, thou Muhammad Shah had been dependent entirely upon the policies and courage of the Nizam, he transfered him from the court of Delhi to Awadh in 1723 AD. Nizam rebelled against the imperial order, abdicate as the Grand vizier and marched towards the Deccan against the will of Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.[18] Under the influence of Nizam's opponents, Muhammad Shah issued a decree to Mubariz Khan-the Governor of Hyderabad, to stop Nizam which resulted in the Battle of Shakar Kheda.[18] In 1724, Asaf Jah I defeated Mubariz Khan and in response, the Mughal emperor was forced to recognize him as the viceroy of the Deccan with the title of Asaf Jah.[20]

In 1724, the Nizam establish autonomy over the Deccan, named the region Hyderabad Deccan, and started what came to be known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were referred to as Asaf Jahi Nizams, or Nizams of Hyderabad.[25][35]

Autonomus ruler

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Nizam of Hyderabad

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Asaf Jah I, Viceroy of the Deccan

In 1724, Nizam ul-Mulk resigned his post in disgust and set off for the Deccan to resume the Vice-royalty, only to find Mubariz Khan, who had been appointed governor by Emperor Farrukhsiyar nine years earlier, refusing to vacate the post.[36]

Mubariz Khan had successfully restored law and order in the Deccan but he was also disloyal to the Mughal throne making only token payments and dividing plum administrative posts among his sons, his uncle and his favourite slave eunuchs. Unimpressed by the up-start occupying what he considered to be his rightful place, Nizam ul-Mulk gathered his forces at Shakarkheda in Berar for a showdown with Mubariz Khan's army known as Battle of Shakar Kheda. The encounter was short but decisive. Wrapped in his bloodsoaked shawl, Mubariz Khan drove his war elephant out of the battle until he died from his wounds. His severed head was then sent to Delhi as proof of Nizam ul-Mulk's determination to annihilate anyone who stood in his way.

Now came from the Emperor an elephant, jewels and the title of Asaf Jah, with directions to settle the country, repress the turbulent, punish the rebels and cherish the people. Asaf Jah, or the one equal to Asaf, the Grand Vizier in the court of King Solomon, was the highest title that could be awarded to a subject of the Mughal Empire. There were no lavish ceremonies to mark the establishment of the Asaf Jahi dynasty in 1724. The inauguration of the first Nizam took place behind closed doors in a private ceremony attended by the new ruler's closest advisors. Nizam ul-Mulk never formally declared his independence and insisted that his rule was entirely based on the trust reposed in him by the Mughal Emperor.[citation needed]

As the Viceroy of the Deccan, the Nizam was the head of the executive and judicial departments and the source of all civil and military authority of the Mughal empire in the Deccan. All officials were appointed by him directly or in his name. Later, assisted by a Diwan the Nizam drafted his own laws, raised his own armies, flew his own flag and formed his own government.

Acknowledging Muhammad Shah's farman, Nizam ul-mulk had good reason to be grateful. Alongside his own personal wealth came the spoils of war and status, he was also entitled to the lion's share of gold unearthed in his dominions, the finest diamonds and gems from Golconda mines and the income from his vast personal estates.

He then divided his newly acquired kingdom into three parts. One third became his own private estate known as the Sarf-i-Khas, one third was allotted for the expenses of the government and was known as the Diwans territory, and the remainder was distributed to Muslim nobles (Jagirdar, Zamindars, Deshmukh), who in return paid nazars (gifts) to the Nizam for the privilege of collecting revenue from the villages under their suzerainty. The most important of these were the Paigah estates. The Paigah's doubled up as generals, making it easy to raise an army should the Nizams Dominions come under attack. They were the equivalent to the Barmakids for the Abbasid Caliphate. Only second to the Nizams family, they were very important in the running of the government and even today their legacy lingers on with ruined palaces and tombs dotted around the once very feudal city of Hyderabad. On the sanads (scrolls) granting them their lands, inscribed in Persian were the words "as long as the Sun and the Moon are in rotation". The owners of the estates were mostly absentee landlords who cared little for the condition of the lands under their control. Jagirs were usually split into numerous pieces in order to prevent the most powerful of the nobles from entertaining any thought of carving out an empire for themselves. The system, which continued relatively unchanged until 1950, ensured a steady source of income for the state treasury and the Nizam himself.

Usage of War elephants

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A Mahout and its rider in service of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.

During a campaign against the Maratha in the year 1730, Nizam-ul-Mulk had no less than 1026 War elephants, 225 of which were armoured.[37]

War against the Marathas

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"The earth dried up, the clouds without dew, Alas! for the poor handful of grass."But marathas never fight directly in the battlefield and always run around and fight from behind the mountains."

Warid, written proverb describing Asaf Jah I and Samsam-ud-Daula's campaign against the Marathas in 1734[38]

In 1725, the Marathas clashed with the Nizam, who refused to pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi to the Marathas. The war began in August 1727 and ended in March 1728. Nizam was defeated at Battle of Palkhed near Nashik by Bajirao I, the son of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Bhatt.[39]

Nader Shah

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In 1738, from beyond the Hindu kush, Nader Shah started advancing towards Delhi through Afghanistan and the Punjab.

Nizam ul-Mulk sent his troops to Karnal, where Mughal Emperor Muhammed Shah's forces had gathered to turn back the Persian army. But the combined forces were cannon fodder for the Persian cavalry and its superior weaponry and tactics. Nader Shah defeated the combined armies of Muhammed Shah and Nizam.

Nader Shah entered Delhi and stationed his troops there. Some locals of Delhi had a quarrel and attacked his soldiers. At this, Nader Shah flew into a rage, drew out his sword from the scabbard and ordered the city to be looted and ransacked. Muhammad Shah was unable to prevent Delhi from being destroyed.

When Nader Shah ordered the massacre in Delhi, neither the helpless Mughal Emperor Muhammed Shah nor any of his Ministers had the courage to speak to Nader Shah and negotiate for a truce.

Only Asaf Jah came forward and risked his life for by going to Nader Shah and asking him to end the bloodbath of the city[citation needed]. Legend has it that Asaf Jah said to Nader Shah

"You have taken the lives of thousands of people of the city, if you still wish to continue the bloodshed, then bring those dead back to life and then kill them again, for there are none left to be killed."

These words had a tremendous impact on Nader Shah – he immediately put his sword inside its scabbard, ended the massacre and returned to Persia.[citation needed]


References

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  1. ^ Faruqui, Munis D. (2013). "At Empire's End: The Nizam, Hyderabad and Eighteenth-century India". In Richard M. Eaton; Munis D. Faruqui; David Gilmartin; Sunil Kumar (eds.). Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History: Essays in Honour of John F. Richards. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–38. ISBN 978-1-107-03428-0.
  2. ^ Sharma, Gauri (2006). Prime Ministers Under the Mughals 1526-1707. Kanishka, New Delhi. ISBN 8173918236.
  3. ^ Khan 1936, p. 1.
  4. ^ Khan 1936, p. 2.
  5. ^ Khan 1936, p. 4.
  6. ^ Khan 1936, p. 8.
  7. ^ Khan 1936, p. 11.
  8. ^ Khan 1936, p. 12.
  9. ^ Faruqui 2013, p. 3-4.
  10. ^ Khan 1936, p. 41.
  11. ^ a b Khan 1936, p. 42.
  12. ^ a b Khan 1936, p. 44.
  13. ^ a b Khan 1936, p. 45.
  14. ^ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. p. 193. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
  15. ^ Shaharyar M. Khan (2000). The Begums of Bhopal (illustrated ed.). I.B.Tauris. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-86064-528-0.
  16. ^ a b Richards, John.F. (1993). The Mughal Empire, Part 1. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 279-281. ISBN 9780521566032. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
  17. ^ "Nizam-Ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, Delhi's Sayyid Brothers and Rise of the British East India Company". Rahnuma e Deccan. 6 March 2019. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  18. ^ a b c d Mehta, Jaswant Lal (2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: 1707–1813. Sterling Publishing. pp. 93–143. ISBN 978-1-932705-54-6.
    • Roy, Olivier (2011). Holy Ignorance: When Religion and Culture Part Ways. Columbia University Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-231-80042-6.
  19. ^ Bandyopadhyaya, Sekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. Orient Blackswan. p. 16-18. ISBN 9788125025962. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
  20. ^ a b Kate, P. V. (1987). Marathwada Under the Nizams, 1724–1948. Mittal. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-81-7099-017-8.
  21. ^ Khan 1936, p. 46.
  22. ^ Khan 1936, p. 47.
  23. ^ John F. Richards, The New Cambridge History of India: The Mughal Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 262
  24. ^ a b Pandharipande, Reeti; Nadimpally, Lasya (5 August 2017). "A brief history of the Nizams of Hyderabad". outlookindia.com/. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
  25. ^ a b c d Richards, John.F. (1993). The Mughal Empire, Part 1. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 273-281. ISBN 9780521566032. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
  26. ^ Sinha, H.N (1960). "The new foundations of Maratha power". 23: 232. Retrieved 9 August 2021. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  27. ^ a b c d Paul, Jaiwant.E (2017). Baji Rao: The Warrior Peshwa. Roli Books Private Limited. pp. 24–25. ISBN 9789351941200. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  28. ^ Mehta, Jaswant Lal (2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813. Sterling Publishers. pp. 24–25. ISBN 9781932705546. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  29. ^ "The Marathas and the Nizam" (PDF). Government of Maharashtra. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  30. ^ "Karmal". Government of Maharashtra. 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  31. ^ "The Marathas and the Nizam" (PDF). Government of Maharashtra. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  32. ^ "Karmal". Government of Maharashtra. 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  33. ^ Ervine, William. The later Mughals. Low Price Publications. ISBN 8175364068.
  34. ^ Malik, Zahiruddin (1965). "Farmans of Muhammad Shah to Nizam ul Mulk". 27. Indian History Congress: 183–192. Retrieved 11 August 2021. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  35. ^ Cite error: The named reference columbia&TOI was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  36. ^ Mahajan, VD (2007). History of Medieval India. S Chand Publication. pp. 175–178. ISBN 9788121903646. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
  37. ^ Oxford Progressive English by Rachel Redford
  38. ^ Full text of "Later Mughals;"
  39. ^ Bernard Law Montgomery Montgomery of Alamein (Viscount) (2000). A Concise History of Warfare. Wordsworth Editions Limited. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-84022-223-4.
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