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User:Oikos6933/sandbox/new Ecology of Florida

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Looking north on State Road 694 from bridge over Intracoastal Waterway. Indian Shores, Florida on left, mangroves on right

The ecology of Florida is remarkable due to its climate and diverse ecological regions. From the northwestern panhandle to the Everglades, differences in hydrology, climate, landforms, soil types, flora and fauna shape each ecoregion, creating a complex and unique landscape that has been recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot. [1]

Setting

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The various ecosystems (communities of plants, animals and other organisms) that exist in Florida are greatly influenced by abiotic factors such as geology, hydrology, temperature and fire frequency.[2] These factors are themselves all influenced by the state's climate, which changes from temperate to subtropical with decreasing distance from the equator.[3] Florida is an extension of the Southeastern Coastal Plain of the United States. Like other states in this province (e.g., Texas, Louisiana, etc.), Florida has a relatively flat landscape with terraced topography shaped by former high sea levels, sandy soils, inland lakes and wetlands, and a long coastline that adds to the richness of habitats found in the state.[4]

Climate

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Florida's humid, subtropical climate is characterized by a cool, dry season and hot, humid season. The lengths and timings of these seasons are different from north to south, with northwestern parts of Florida experiencing more rainfall in spring than more eastern and southern parts, but generally correspond to winter and fall for the dry season and summer for the wet season. During the wet season, daily rain and thunderstorms are common, often occurring in the afternoons.[2] More lightning strikes occur in Florida than in any other state in the U.S., with most strikes occurring in the summer.[5] Additionally, Florida's proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea leaves it susceptible to tropical storms and hurricanes during summer months and into the fall, with peak occurrences during September and October.[2] Seasonal variation in temperatures is different from north to south. Average winter lows may be as low as 39 °F in the northern part of the state, while in South Florida they may range from 49 to 80 °F. As a result, northern parts of Florida experience more extremes in seasonal variation.[6] Although it is rare, snow is sometimes reported in the state. For example, 0.1 inches of snowfall was reported in Tallahassee on January 3, 2018.[7] Because of its climate, which grades from more temperate in the north to more tropical in the south, Florida represents the southern extent in the distribution of many temperate species of plants, as well as the northern extent for many tropical plants (including many with broad Caribbean, Neotropical or pantropical distributions).[3]

Geology

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The vast majority of Florida's geologic history (95%) has been spent submerged in marine environments. Carbonates from calcifying marine creatures (including corals) and phosphorous from large deposits of organic material (e.g., dead plankton) helped shape the bedrock of present day Florida. The landmass was at one time attached to the part of the super continent Pangaea that is now Africa and migrated to its present position over millions of years due to tectonic processes.[8] The peninsula is the part of the Florida Platform that appears above water, and the size and shape of it has fluctuated over millions of years as the Earth has heated and cooled, and caused sea levels to rise and fall correspondingly.[9] Some parts of Florida have likely been above water for at least 35 million years.[10] Florida's modern topography was partly shaped during the Pleistocene when sea levels were higher than present day. During this time, coastal processes accumulated large amounts of carbonate sands along what were then coastal areas. When sea levels dropped and exposed more of the Florida Platform, these dune systems were partially eroded. However, their remains were left behind, forming areas of relatively higher elevation far from the coast, such as the Lake Wales Ridge.[8] Many of the peninsula's lakes were also formed during this time.[11]

Karst

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Most of Florida's bedrock is formed of limestone. Acidic groundwater seeping through porous limestone causes dissolution of the limestone and the formation of karst terrain. Over time, water dissolves channels, cracks, and caves through the bedrock, forming aquifers, and exits through springs or another point of discharge, carrying with it dissolved carbonates and other minerals. Given enough time, large cavities with overlying rock can form that may eventually collapse, forming sinkholes that may fill to form lakes, depressions and hilly topography.[12]

Hydrology

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Florida is a peninsula and its proximity to the sea on three sides adds to the amount of precipitation in the state.[2] Topography greatly influences the character of hydrologic features.[13] In the northern panhandle (coastal plain) region where there is higher topography, alluvial rivers are more common[2], but isolated wetlands are not. The opposite is true for South Florida, where rivers tend to be slow paced due to its flat topography, and wetlands have historically blanketed much of the landscape.[13] A North-South hydrological divide is present in the state, which stretches from Cedar Key on the west coast to Daytona in the east. North of this divide, Florida's hydrology is greatly connected to the rest of the continent, with much of the state's water flowing in from underground sources in Georgia and Alabama. To the south, all groundwater comes from precipitation. Most of the state's lowermost groundwater system is the Floridan aquifer, formed from the state's carbonate bedrock.[14] The Biscayne Aquifer underlies portions of Miami-Dade and Broward counties, and parts of the western panhandle have an aquifer composed of sand and gravel.[10] The groundwater in these aquifers is trapped underground in areas where impermeable rocks lie on top of it, but in many areas of Florida where permeable sediment overlies the aquifer, groundwater resurfaces and forms springs.[15] More than 300 springs are known in the state.[2] In other areas (recharge areas or "areas of contribution"[16]), precipitation permeates through the sediment and recharges the aquifer.[15] Areas of higher elevation (e.g., the Lake Wales Ridge) may have deeper water tables that most plant roots cannot access, either seasonally or throughout the entire year, but Florida's relatively low elevation and flatness means that a great deal of the land has very shallow water tables within reach of plant roots. In wetland areas, the water table seasonally or permanently rises above the land surface. During the last ice age, Florida was much drier, and had more expansive scrublands. Over the last 10,000 years, rising water tables have increased the amount of mesic and wetland habitats on the peninsula.[2] Because of its hydrology, Florida has the most and highest density of wetlands out of all the states in the continental U.S.[11] Florida has around 7800 lakes, mostly small and shallow, and formed from sinkholes.[2]

Fire

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Fire has historically played a roll in maintaining and shaping the different native ecosystems found in Florida. Many of these ecosystems depend on short fire return intervals (periods of time between fires). When these intervals are prolonged, the habitat may succeed to a different type of ecosystem.[17] Fire is a natural part of Florida's ecology, and has historically been started by lightning.[18] Knowledge of natural fire regimes to which native species have adapted is necessary to maintain Florida's biodiversity.[19]

Ecosystems

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Upland Ecosystems

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Pine Flatwoods

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An example of a Pine Flatwood ecosystem in South Florida. The pines in this picture are identified as Pinus elliottii.

Pine flatwoods are a prominent ecosystem found throughout Florida that are in part characterized by flat and low lying land, acidic soil, poor drainage, sandy soil and fire regulation. Pine flatwoods habitats in Florida typically have an open canopy that consists primarily of Slash Pine (Pinus elliottii), Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) or Pond Pine (Pinus serotina). Hardwood trees such as live oak (Quercus virginiana) and red maple (Acer rubrum) are found infrequently throughout the ecosystem. These organisms are found more commonly in flatwood ecosystems when the fire regime is suppressed. The open canopy allows for ample penetration of light to the understory and as a result will often have a relatively open canopy and support an extensive and diverse shrub layer, typically dominated saw palmetto(Serenoa repens), gallberry (Ilex glabra), fetterbush (Lyonia lucida) and wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera). The herbaceous layer of the flatwoods however is typically found to be much more sparse.[20] Pine flatwood ecosystems can be found throughout Florida but there is a typically a difference in dominate species that changes with latitude. Northern flatwoods are commonly composed of Longleaf Pine while the southern flatwood ecosystems are dominated by Slash pine.[20]

Notable animal species in pine flatwoods include: bobcats (Lynx rufus), fox squirrels (Sciurus niger), white-tailed deer (Odecoileus virginianus), Florida panthers (Felix concolor coryi), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), yellow-throated warblers (Dendroica demonica), Bobwhite quails (Colinus virginianus), red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis), eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus), eastern indigo snakes (Drymarshon corais couperi), flatwoods salamanders (Ambystoma cingulatum), oak toads (Bufo quercicus) and cricket frogs (Acris gryllus).[20]

Dry Prairies

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A Florida burrowing owl, a threatened species of owl found in some of Florida's ecosystems such as Dry Prairies

Dry prairies are another prominent Florida ecosystem and have a close relationship to Pine Flatwoods. Dry prairies often have similar habitat conditions such as sandy, acidic, poorly-drained soil, fire regulation, and low-lying land with level terrain. Additionally, dry prairie ecosystems are frequently found adjacent to pine flatwood ecosystems. The plant community in dry prairies consist primarily of low shrubs and grasses and characterized by a lack of trees. Retention of heavy rains causing prolonged flooding and more frequent fires help in making dry prairie habitats more prohibitive to tree growth than pine flatwoods. Florida dry prairies occur almost exclusively in central and south Florida, mostly centered around the Kissimmee River and Lake Okeechobee.[21] Dry prairies are home to several rare and endangered species, including Florida burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia floridana), crested caracaras (Caracara cheriway) and grasshopper sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus).[22] Other notable but common species include: Florida box turtles (Terrapene carolina bauri), glass lizards (Ophisaurus spp.), Florida ribbon snakes (Thamnophis sauritus sackenii), black racers (Coluber constrictor priapus), eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus), oldfield mice (Peromyscus polionotus), spotted skunks (Spilogale putorius), oak toads (Bufo quercicus), cricket frogs (Acris gryllus), pine woods tree frogs (Hyla femoralis), Henslow's sparrows (Ammodramus henslowii), red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and common nighthawks (Chordeiles minor).[21]

Temperate Hardwood Forests

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An Eastern Indigo Snake, a threatened species of snake that can be found in several of Florida's upland ecosystems

The temperate hardwood forests of Florida typically occur along the Coastal Plain, the largest of which are near Gainesville, Ocala and Brooksville. Temperate Hardwood forests are typically found in inland portions of the state between pinelands and bottomland forests. The forest composition typically displays a mix of deciduous and evergreen trees. In South Florida evergreen trees often will make up a greater percentage of the forest than in North Florida.[23] The canopies of temperate Florida have much greater species richness that decreases as deciduous species reach the limit of their southern range and are replaced by evergreen species.[24] Florida's temperate forests are often mesic in nature with soils composed in large part of sand and clay. These soils often have a large amount of organic matter and are relatively high in nutrients compared to much of Florida. The combination of organic matter and clay components of the soil help to retain moisture. However, there are often a range of moisture conditions that Temperate Hardwood forests will exist within and many will show drier conditions with species that are more tolerant of these conditions.[25]

The community changes and succession of temperate hardwood forests are primarily dependent on three different factors; light, fire and large scale disturbances such as hurricanes. The dense canopy is efficient at blocking light and in turn the recruitment young trees is contained by light limitations. Often recruitment happens in gaps of the canopy that allow light to pass through. Light gaps in which trees can successfully grow range in size from that of a single tree to large opening that can support the growth of several new trees.[26] Fire is another natural process that can promote new growth in temperate hardwood forests. However, in these forests fires are often low intensity and have only mild, localized impacts. Often the fires will occur on the outer edges of the forest and are rarely severe enough to even burn through the understory. However, damage from fires does still help provide some areas with opportunities of new growth. Additionally, large scale disturbances, such as hurricanes are effective in creating open canopy with allows the establishment of younger trees. [27]

Some notable animal species in Florida's temperate hardwood forests include: racoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus), Florida panthers (Felix concolor coryi) Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus) cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum), chuck-will's widows (Caprimulgus carolinensis), great-crested flycatchers (Myarchus crinitus), and eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon corais couperi).[23]

Scrub

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Florida scrub ecosystems are forest ecosystems that occur in sandy, low nutrient and well drained soils throughout Florida. These habitats are dominated by shrub species, but the type of species varies dependent on the type of scrub habitat. There are several different types of Florida scrub ecosystems including; sand pine scrub, oak scrub, scrubby flatwoods, rosemary scrub, coastal scrub, and slash pine scrub. These different habitat types are characterized by differences in species composition and occur due to differences in fire regulation, geographic features and soil conditions. Infrequent, high intensity fires are essential to the regulation of scrub habitats. Fires in scrub habitats help to maintain the unique habitat conditions that many of the species present require to be successful. [28]

Some notable animal species of Florida scrub habitats include: white-tailed deers (Odecoileus virginianus),Goff's pocket gopher (Geomys pinetis goffi), great-crested flycatchers (Myiarchus crintus), scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens), Bachman's sparrows (Aimophila aestivalis), gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), blue-tailed mole skinks (Eumeces egregius lividus), sand skinks (Neoseps reynoldsi), short-tailed snakes (Stilosome extenuatum), scrub lizards (Sceloporus woodi), sand skinka (Neoseps reynoldsi), and gopher frogs (Rana areolata aesopus).[28]

High Pine

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Florida high pine ecosystems are savanna-like systems characterized primarily characterized by wiregrass (Aristida beyrichiana) and Longleaf pine dominance (Pinus palustris). Florida's high pine ecosystems occur primarily in Northern Florida. These habitats have limited coverage of shrubs and dense grass or herb coverage. Trees are widely spread and mostly Longleaf pine, though other species such as shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) may also be present. These habitats are heavily dependent on frequent and low intensity fires. Fire frequency historically would have ranged from every 1 to 3 years. Fires often occur during the growing season and help to reduce the competition of hardwoods.[29] Today fire suppression and logging have caused major declines in High Pine ecosystems. In heavily disturbed areas Longleaf pine is often replaced with loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) or shortleaf pine. Additionally, absence of wiregrass is well correlated with a history of disturbance in high pine habitats.[30]

Some notable animal species of Florida High Pine habitats include; Sherman's fox squirrels (Sciurus niger shermani), pocket gophers (Geomys pinetis), ground doves (Columbigallina passerina), Eastern towhees (Pipilo erthrophthalmus), red-cockaded woodpeckers(Picoides borealis), gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), eastern fence lizards (Sceloporus undulatus), blue-tailed mole skinks (Eumeces egregius lividius), eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon corais couperi), and short-tailed snakes (Stilosoma extenuatum).[31]

South Florida Rockland

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Rockland ecosystems in Florida form in areas with limestone outcroppings, which are common throughout south Florida, a thin layer of soil and relatively high elevation. Rockland habitats in South Florida today are highly fragmented, surrounded by either water or cities. There are two different types of rockland ecosystems commonly found in Florida: Pine Rockland and Rockland Hammocks. These ecosystems reach their northern ranges in South Florida and are found in the South Florida mainland and in the Florida Keys.[32]

An example of a Slash Pine dominated South Florida Pine Rockland habitat
Pine Rockland
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The canopy of the Pine Rockland ecosystems are typically dominated by Florida Slash Pine (Pinus elliotti var. densa) and will have a dense herbaceous layer. The shrub layer in Pine Rocklands is commonly diverse and consists of tropical hardwood species, a few palm species and a diverse collection of native herb species.[33] The ecosystem is fire regulated with frequent fires reducing competition from hardwood species. These fires are typically low intensity surface fires and crown fires are uncommon. Burns typically occur every 3-7 years and fire exclusion for a few decades can lead to transition into a Rockland Hammock ecosystem.[32][34] Most species present in Pine Rocklands are well adapted to fire and will either be relatively unaffected or sprout rapidly after a fire occurs.[35]

Some notable Florida Pine rockland animal species include: cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus), marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), raccoons (Procyon lotor), white-tailed deers (Odecoileus virginianus), fox squirrels (Sciurus niger), pine warblers (Dendroica pinus), red-shoulder hawks (Buteo lineatus), pygmy rattlesnakes (Sisturus militarius), southeastern five-lined skink (Plestiodon inexpectatus), and Miami black-headed snakes (Tantilla oolitica).[34]

Rockland Hammock
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Rockland hammocks are ecosystems dominated by hardwood species which are able to persist due to a lack of fire disturbance. Fires are often prevented in these areas due to natural fire breaks. Additionally, the ecosystem will form a moist micro-climate through its dense canopy and rounded profile, that helps prevent fire from spreading into the system.[36] Differences in rainfall, elevation, salinity, minimum temperature and disturbance account for much of the variation between and among Rockland Hammock systems. [37] In Rockland Hammock habitats the canopy and shrub layers are typically diverse and the herbaceous layer has relatively few species. [32]

Some notable animal species in Florida Rockland Hammock ecosystems include: Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli), key deers (Odocoileus virginianus clavium), white-crowned pigeons (Patagioenas leucocephala), mangrove cuckoos (Coccyzus minor), black-whiskered vireos (Vireo altiloquus), rim rock crowned snakes (Tantilla oolitica), and Schaus’ swallowtails (Papilio aristodemus ponceanus).[38]

Interior Waters

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Freshwater Wetlands

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Florida's freshwater wetlands are found in depressions bordered by upland ecosystems or peripheral to bodies of waters such as lakes or rivers. Fire frequency, water source and hydroperiod (the pattern of water level in a wetland) also play a role in producing the diversity of wetland types found in the state. The state's wetlands experience a high degree of interconnectivity.[39] 90% of Florida's wetlands (which covered 32% of the state in 1980, and an estimated two-thirds of the state during pre-Columbian times) are freshwater habitats.[40]

Seepage Wetlands

Seepage wetlands are found predominately in the North and Central part of the state because of their relatively higher topography compared to the South. These wetland habitats are formed when uplands gently slope downward. Groundwater - and to a lesser degree, rainwater - from upland slowly flows down slope, soaking the soil and forming acidic bogs. The degree to which the water inundates the soil, influenced by topography, determines the type of wetland communities that develop. The least wet areas are herb bogs. Herb bogs are maintained by infrequent fire, and are highly diverse. They are dominated by sedges, grasses, ferns, and also may contain rare orchids, carnivorous plants and other uncommon plants. Farther downslope areas may form shrub bogs, which demarcate where the path of fire spreading through an herb bog ends. The shrub bog is much shadier and the plant diversity is much lower. Two species of titi often form dense thickets in these habitats, sometimes leading them to be called titi swamps. Finally, farthest downslope may be a bay swamp (also called bayheads or baygalls in Florida). The community is named because many (closely unrelated) trees whose common names include "bay" are found in these areas (e.g., loblolly bay, sweetbay, swamp bay). Cypress, tupelo, red maple and sweetgum are also common tree species. Fires may only occur once or twice a century in bay swamps, and result in their complete destruction. More rarely, permanently flooded swamps downslope from shrub bogs may be dominated by the Atlantic white-cedar.[41] The Okefenokee Swamp which straddles the border of Georgia and Florida is home to all of these swamp habitats and more.[42]

Swamps

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Many of Florida's wetlands are forested areas that are flooded seasonally to intermittently and sometimes permanently with flowing water. Tree species with adaptations to withstand periodic exposure to flowing water such as pond and bald cypress or swamp, water and ogeechee tupelo may dominate in strand swamps.[41] Florida's landscape consisted of 10-15% cypress wetlands in 1977. This includes floodplain forests that are associated with rivers and streams, where cypress tends to co-dominate with hardwood tree species.[43] These floodplain swamps are dependent on regular flooding from rivers and streams to maintain their community composition.[44] A type of still water swamp that is also dominated by cypress and tupelo are basin swamps, which occupy natural areas of low elevation such as former lake beds or the swales in ancient dune systems.[42]

Marshes

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Florida is composed of a variety of different freshwater marsh habitats, which are created by local topography, fire frequency, soil types and bedrock. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) distinguishes between long hydroperiod marshes and short hydroperiod wet prairies. The majority of these kinds of habitats are found in South Florida. The most well-known example is the Everglades which consists mostly of sawgrass marshes. Unique subtypes of marshes exist in isolated areas throughout the state, home to rare endemic species, for example in the Florida Keys. Other marshes may be dominated by cattails, "flag" species (e.g., Sagittaria species, Thalia geniculata, Pontederia cordata, etc.), grasses (e.g., maidencane and Spartina species) or other types of sedges such as Eleocharis and Rhynchospora species. Other important marsh plants include floating-leaved plants (e.g., Nymphaea species and Nuphar advena) and Xyris species.[45]

Lakes

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Most of Florida's nearly 8,000 lakes are solution basins, formed when superficial deposits collapsed into sinkholes formed in Florida's karst terrain. Florida lakes ranges from naturally oligotrophic (especially in the Central Ridge region) to naturally eutrophic, dependent on edaphic factors of the lake's watershed.[46] While recent increases in the presence and abundance of cyanobacteria in many Florida lakes are likely caused by humans, presence of these organisms have been documented in some Florida lakes prior to human disturbances associated with agricultural and residential expansion.[47] Lake color also varies from very clear to darkly colored, with consequences for productivity and biotic community structure.[46] Lakes are the headwaters for many of the state's important wetlands, including the Everglades, the headwaters of which are the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes. Lake Okeechobee is the largest lake in the state and the center of South Florida's hydrology.[48]

Rivers and Streams

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Florida has at least 1,700 named rivers and streams that comprise over 12,000 miles of waterways. Compared to rivers in other parts of the country, Florida's are relatively small (for instance, none are in the 25 largest rivers in North America in terms of discharge). However, six of Florida's (Apalachicola, Choctawatchee, Escambia, Kissimmee, Suwannee and St. Johns) might be considered large with drainage basins over 3,000 square miles, and the state is home to dozens of medium-sized rivers, with the remainder of its waterways having a drainage basin of less than 1,000 square miles. Other than drainage from their watersheds, Florida's rivers may have spring inputs (e.g., the Santa Fe River) or have their headwaters in a chain of lakes (e.g., the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes and the Kissimmee River). Most of Florida's rivers are blackwater rivers, with dark waters stained by organic acids such as tannins.[49] Some of Florida's northern rivers are classified as alluvial rivers.[46] Many species that live associated with rivers are dependent on natural variations in water level and flow that occur at particular times or seasons. However, some of Florida's rivers (e.g., the Kissimmee River) have been channelized to control their naturally meandering flow and seasonally variable water levels, with resultant losses in biodiversity, connectivity with floodplain wetlands and important ecosystem functions like flood control.[44]

Springs

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Florida's springs are the surface expression of the Floridan aquifer. Florida may have the highest concentration of freshwater springs in the world, with an estimated 600 found in the state[50], and at least 300 named springs.[46] These springs are connected with and greatly affected by the surrounding landscape. Springs are fed by aquifer water that comes from the surface and rain waters of extensive recharge areas, and thus are negatively influenced by human activities like groundwater withdrawal and pollution, sometimes even when it occurs many miles away from springs. Many rare and unique plants and animals depend on Florida's springs for their survival.[50] For example, the Ocala vetch (Vicia ocalensis) is an endemic Florida plant in the legume family, found only along undisturbed spring runs with intact stream banks.[51] Its four known populations have a geographic distribution limited to just two counties (Lake and Marion).[52]

Coastal Ecosystems

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Dunes and Maritime Forests

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Salt Marshes

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Florida salt marsh habitat

Salt marsh habitats are coastal wetlands that are periodically flooded and drained by saltwater via tidal movement[53], and tend to occur along low energy shorelines, at river mouths, and along bayous and sounds in the state of Florida.[54] These coastal regions provide many ecosystem services and are considered an important breeding ground and nursery for many Florida native species.[53] Furthermore, salt marshes are composed of a variety of grasses, sedges, and rushes, all of which have extensive root systems and therefore aid in buffering impacts on upland regions by mitigating wave actions, trapping sediments, and absorbing pollutants.[53][54] These plants also compose the base of the food web and are a direct source of food for many organisms.[55]

Salt marshes are most abundant in coastal regions above the winter freeze line where competition with mangrove wetlands is less frequent.[13] Salt marshes are the most common form of coastal vegetation from Apalachicola Bay south to Tampa Bay, with The Big Bend region of Florida containing the largest salt marsh habitat acreage in the state. On the Atlantic coast of Florida, salt marshes can also be found from Daytona Beach northward.[56]

Salt marshes are an essential habitat for a variety of vegetation and wildlife. However, due to the periodic flooding and extremely saline environmental conditions, vegetative species diversity is fairly low.[13] Four plant species dominate Florida's salt marshes; black needle rush (Juncus roemerianus), a grayish rush that typically is found along higher marsh areas, saltmeadow cord grass (Spartina patens), a grass typically found in inundated regions, smooth cord grass (Spartina alterniflora), a grass found in low regions, and sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense), a freshwater plant that grows around upper edges of salt marshes.[13][56][57] Salt marshes provide habitat for numerous invertebrate species, some of the must abundant include crustaceans, gastropods, fish, and filter feeders.[13] Furthermore, over 60 species of year-round resident and migratory birds utilize salt marsh habitats on the Gulf coast of Florida.[57][13]

Mangroves

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Florida mangrove habitat in Dunedin, Fl

Mangroves consist of woody tree or shrub species located along marine coastlines and can be found in both subtropic and tropic latitudes, from roughly 25 degrees north and 25 degrees south.[15] These regions are also characterized by being extremely saline and low in oxygen.[3] The term "mangrove" refers to the specific salt tolerant species that thrive in harsh coastal regions, apposed to an entire botanical relation.[58] Mangroves are considered a critical constituent of the marine and estuarine environment, and provide many ecosystems services and important ecological functions for Florida ecosystems. These services include providing a major food chain base, nesting sites and foraging grounds, protecting nursery regions, and commercial fishing.[15][59] Mangroves also recycle nutrients and critically maintain nutrient mass balance of surrounding ecosystems.[3][59]

Mangrove species can be found on all Florida coasts, with the highest concentration being in the southern region of the state. This protected area is now Everglades National Park, which encompasses two million acres and is the largest wetland region in the northern hemisphere.[10]

Three species of Mangrove inhabit Florida coastlines; Red Mangrove, Black Mangrove, and White Mangrove. Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) grow in the harshest conditions, and possess prop roots which are reddish in color.[16]This species typically grows to an average of 6 meters in Florida, and are geographically limited by temperature. Red Mangrove are most concentrated in Cedar Key and Daytona Beach, spanning through the Keys to the south.[16] Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans) are identified by long, horizontal pneumatophores with dark scaly bark and reach an average height of 15 meters in Florida. This species grows further north than Red Mangroves, and ranges from the Keys to Cedar Key on the Gulf side, and to St. Augustine on the Atlantic. White Mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa) contain no visible aerial roots, but can develop peg roots during extremely harsh conditions and occupy the highest elevation of the mangrove species in Florida. This species is also the least cold-tolerant, and can grow to 15 meters. White Mangrove inhabit regions southward of Levy County in Florida.[59][16]

Inshore Marine Habitats

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Coral Reefs

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Florida is home to the third largest barrier reef system in the world and the largest in the continental United States.[60][61][62][63], it is known as the Florida Keys reef Tract[62]. Individual or patch reefs in Florida expand from Stuart on the Florida's east coast to Tampa Bay on the Florida's west coast,[60] while the barrier reef system runs from the Miami area southwest to the Dry Tortuga's.[64] Reefs are able to develop in these areas since southern Florida lies in the latitudes between 24°30’N and 31°N and is a Tropical climate[64].

Coral reef structures are beneficial in protecting our coastlines both directly and indirectly. The Florida Key reef tract provides physical protection by creating a barrier to storm surge and strong currents which will help lessen coastal erosion[65]. Coral reefs also build many beaches, coastal land, even islands by producing a lot of beach material[65]. This is done by providing habitat and food resources suitable for fauna that are main contributors to "sand" such as parrotfishes and sea cucumbers. The usually calm waters around the Florida Reef Tract also provide safe waters for navigation. Coral reefs also play a large role in the sequestering of CO2[65][66][67][68]. Florida's reefs play a crucial role in providing habitats to most marine species at some point in their life cycle by providing protection, viable habitat, and food[69][70][71].

Florida's reefs provide millions of dollars annually in revenue by goods and services for Florida's economy[72][65]. Some of these activities include but are not limited to scuba diving, snorkeling, tourism, pharmaceutical use and research, mining, education, and fishing (both recreational and commercial)[66][71][65][72]. Many communities, especially the Florida Keys, are reliant on the money that the mentioned activities being. When a family comes down to the Florida Keys for a tropical vacation they have to find lodging, transportation, food, and entertainment, all of these provide revenue for the area and jobs for the locals.

There are many government agencies responsible for the management of Florida's reefs, depending on the location[73][74]. Unfortunately, the disparate management authorities is one of the reasons Florida's corals are in danger[74]. On the east Atlantic coast of Florida, the boundary for state waters is 3 nautical miles offshore whereas on the Gulf of Mexico west side of Florida the state boundary is nine nautical miles. If within the state boundaries the sate of Florida is responsible for management and anything outside of the state boundaries the Federal Government is responsible[75]. From the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) and their management of Florida state waters on coral reefs "In the state of Florida there are specific rules governing the commercial, nonlethal harvest of marine life. Throughout the state of Florida the collection of stony corals, fire corals, and the octocorals, Gorgonia flabellum and G. ventalina (common sea-fans) is prohibited. The collection of octocoral species is restricted. The harvest of live-rock, substrate with living organisms attached, is illegal unless harvested at a licensed aquaculture area. Additionally, any harvest of the long-spined sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, is prohibited"[76]. The Florida Keys are managed by multiple agencies of the State of Florida and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the area of the Florida Keys managed is call the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS)[77]. FKNMS protects over 6000 species and 2900 nautical square miles of water around the Florida Keys[78].

There are three types of modern reefs in Florida: intertidal worm reefs, tropical shallow water coral reefs, artificial reefs, and deep water coral banks[79][80].

Worm Reefs

Hen Chicken Reef, Florida Keys

From Cape Canaveral to Biscayne Bay are low reefs created by the marine worm, Phragmatopoma lapidosa[79][80]. These marine worms form aggregates of tubes cemented together by protein and sand, and this ecosystem is provides nursery grounds for many coastal fisheries species which are recreationally fished including Florida's spiny lobster, Panulirus argus[79][80].

Tropical Shallow-Water Coral Reefs

Tropical shallow-water coral reefs are the reefs that are most associate with "reefs". Florida's barrier reef in the Florida Keys is very similar to the reefs found in the Caribbean Sea due to the climate and hydrology[81][82]. The Florida reefs are very abundant in biodiversity and richness of coral cover. Many species of commercial and recreational fisheries inhabit the Florida reef tract at some point during their life cycle[83][81][82]. The Florida reef tract is was built from the death of hard corals, as the corals die they leave behind a Calcium Carbonate skeleton. The barrier reef acts as a guardian to smaller patch reefs nearby, these patch reefs can be the size of a home or backyard and serve an important role with genetic material exchange.

Artificial Reefs

Artificial reefs can be accidentally or purposely placed structures which occur off the coast of Florida's coastlines and some in offshore waters[84]. Some examples are bridge pilings, piers, collapsed bridges, wrecked aircraft, shipwrecks, pipelines[84], and concrete structures that contain human remains. Depending on location, current patterns, local bottom time and may other variables over several years these structures can become artificial reefs boasting with corals, sponges, algae and other associated reef fauna[84][85].

Deep-Water Coral Banks

In depths of 400-800 meters off of the continental slope margins of Florida is where deep-water banks can occur[84][85]. Coral growth at these depths is slow due to cold temperatures and rate of marine snow fall, but some fragile branching corals create structures and provide sediment accumulation[84][86][85]. The two major builders on these types of reefs off the coast of Florida are Lophelia prolifera and Enallopsammia profunda[84][85].

Threats

[edit]

Human impacts pose a major threat to Mangroves in Florida.[16] These environmental impacts include dredging, which causes flooding and limits oxygen availability, water pollution, where herbicides and oil spills can coat roots and lead to death, and urban development, which is rampant in Florida's coast and has led to total destruction and increased erosion of Mangrove habitats.[16] Invasive species, such as the Burmese Python, have also become of threat to Florida Mangrove habitats and the native species which utilize Mangroves.[16][10] Some restoration work has been done to conserve Florida Mangroves, specifically the Everglades, with The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. This plan focuses mostly on capturing and redirecting freshwater to regions that need it to maintain healthy estuarine mangrove habitats.[10]

Human impacts threaten Florida salt marsh habitats, with a 10% overall salt marsh loss observed in 2018.[56] Highly urbanized regions, such as Tampa Bay, have lost more than 40 percent of the area's original salt marsh acreage. Degradation of these habitats began after Florida's post-1930's population surge after new technologies to prevent mosquito breeding cycles were practiced, allowing for salt marsh regions to be more habitable for humans.[13][56]Salt marshes have also been depleted by dredging and filling practices to create intracoastal waterways, shipping channels, and coastal land development.[56] These threats have negative consequences on the salt marsh ecosystems, which can in turn impact Florida economy through depletion of commercial and recreational fisheries. State regulations have been enacted to combat these impacts, specifically with the Warren B Henderson Wetlands Act of 1984.[13][56]

Salt marsh habitats are coastal wetlands that are periodically flooded and drained by saltwater via tidal movement[2], and tend to occur along low energy shorelines, at river mouths, and along bayous and sounds in the state of Florida.[8] These coastal regions provide many ecosystem services and are considered an important breeding ground and nursery for many Florida native species.[2] Furthermore, salt marshes are composed of a variety of grasses, sedges, and rushes, all of which have extensive root systems and therefore aid in buffering impacts on upland regions by mitigating wave actions, trapping sediments, and absorbing pollutants.[2][8] These plants also compose the base of the food web and are a direct source of food for many organisms.[11]

In recent decades coral reefs have been in decline worldwide[87] and Florida's reef have been no exception. There has been a shift in the coral reef taxa, and the once dominant species have been hit hard[87]. Florida's reefs face many threats such as to global climate change (rise in temperature, ocean acidification), over harvesting (of the corals themselves or the fauna which help to sustain the reef), water pollution, coral disease, destruction by tropical hurricanes, sedimentation deposit, and other human misuses. All of the mentioned can lead to degradation of the Florida reefs and loss of species and biodiversity.


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