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Lede section on History of the li-ion batt goes HERE.


History

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See also: History of the battery

Background

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Varta lithium-ion battery, Museum Autovision, Altlussheim, Germany

Lithium batteries were proposed by British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham, now[citation needed] at Binghamton University, while working for Exxon in the 1970s.[1] Whittingham used titanium(IV) sulfide and lithium metal as the electrodes. However, this rechargeable lithium battery design did not become practical. Titanium disulfide was a poor choice, since it has to be synthesized under completely sealed conditions, and was quite expensive (~$1,000 per kilogram for titanium disulfide raw material in 1970s).[citation needed] When exposed to air, titanium disulfide reacts to form hydrogen sulfide compounds, which have an unpleasant odor and are toxic to most animals. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery.[2] Batteries with metallic lithium electrodes presented safety issues, as lithium metal reacts with water, releasing flammable hydrogen gas.[3] Consequently, research moved to develop batteries in which, instead of metallic lithium, only lithium compounds are present, being capable of accepting and releasing lithium ions.

Reversible intercalation in graphite[4][5] and intercalation into cathodic oxides[6][7] was discovered in 1974–76 by J. O. Besenhard at TU Munich. Besenhard proposed its application to lithium cells.[8][9] Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were severe early drawbacks for battery life.[citation needed]

It has been argued[by whom?] that lithium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticized for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.[10]

Invention and development

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  • 1973 – Adam Heller proposed the lithium thionyl chloride battery, still used in implanted medical devices and in defense systems where a greater than 20-year shelf life, high energy density, and/or tolerance for extreme operating temperatures are required.[11]
  • 1977 – Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the University of Pennsylvania.[12][13] This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite electrode at Bell Labs (LiC
    6    )[14] to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery.
  • 1979 – Working in separate groups, Ned A. Godshall et al.,[15] [16][17] and shortly thereafter by John B. Goodenough and Koichi Mizushima, both teams demonstrated a rechargeable lithium cell with voltage in the 4 V range using lithium cobalt dioxide (LiCoO
    2    ) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode.[18][19] This innovation provided the positive electrode material that enabled early commercial lithium batteries. LiCoO
    2     is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal.[20] By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO
    2     enabled novel rechargeable battery systems. Godshall et al. further identified the similar value of ternary compound lithium-transition metal-oxides such as the spinel LiMn2O4, Li2MnO3, LiMnO2, LiFeO2, LiFe5O8, and LiFe5O4 (and later lithium-copper-oxide and lithium-nickel-oxide cathode materials in 1985)[21]
  • 1980 – Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite,[22][23] and invented the lithium graphite anode/electrode.[24][25] The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging with a graphite negative electrode. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. As of 2011, Yazami's graphite electrode was the most commonly used electrode in commercial lithium-ion batteries.
  • The negative electrode has its origins in PAS (polyacenic semiconductive material) discovered by Tokio Yamabe and later by Shjzukuni Yata in the early 1980s.[26][27][28][29] The seed of this technology[failed verification] was the discovery of conductive polymers by Professor Hideki Shirakawa and his group, and it could also be seen as having started from the polyacetylene lithium ion battery developed by Alan MacDiarmid and Alan J. Heeger et al.[30]
  • 1982 – Godshall et al. were awarded U.S. patent 4,340,652[31] for the use of LiCoO2 as cathodes in lithium batteries, based on Godshall's Stanford University Ph.D. dissertation and 1979 publications.
  • 1983 – Michael M. Thackeray, Peter Bruce, William David, and John Goodenough developed a manganese spinel as a commercially relevant charged cathode material for lithium-ion batteries.[32]
  • 1985 – Akira Yoshino assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium ions could be inserted as one electrode, and lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
    2    ) as the other.[33] This dramatically improved safety. LiCoO
    2     enabled industrial-scale production and enabled the commercial lithium-ion battery.
  • 1989 – Goodenough and Arumugam Manthiram showed that positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the induction effect of the polyanion.[34]

Commercialization and later history

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The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increased as development progressed.

  • 1991 – Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery.[35][non-primary source needed] The Japanese team that successfully commercialized the technology was led by Yoshio Nishi.[36][non-primary source needed]
  • 1996 – Akshaya Padhi, KS Nanjundawamy and Goodenough identified LiFePO4 (LFP) as a cathode material.[37]
  • 1996 – Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers proposed lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
    4    ) and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral olivine) as positive electrode materials.[38]
  • 1998 – C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney reported the discovery of the high capacity high voltage lithium-rich NMC cathode materials.[39]
  • 2001 – Christopher Johnson, Michael Thackeray, Khalil Amine, and Jaekook Kim file a patent[40][41] for NMC lithium rich cathodes based on a domain structure.
  • 2001 – Zhonghua Lu and Jeff Dahn file a patent[42] for the lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) class of positive electrode materials, which offers safety and energy density improvements over the widely used lithium cobalt oxide.
  • 2002 – Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by doping it[43] with aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate.[44]
  • 2004 – Yet-Ming Chiang again increased performance by utilizing lithium iron phosphate particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the positive electrode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity LIBs, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and John Goodenough.[44]
  • 2005 – Y Song, PY Zavalij, and M. Stanley Whittingham report a new two-electron vanadium phosphate cathode material with high energy density [45][46]
  • 2011 – Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cathodes, developed at Argonne National Laboratory, are manufactured commercially by BASF in Ohio.[47]
  • 2011 – Lithium-ion batteries accounted for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable) battery sales in Japan.[48]
  • 2012 – John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery.[25]
  • 2014 – John Goodenough, Yoshio Nishi, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino were awarded the Charles Stark Draper Prize of the National Academy of Engineering for their pioneering efforts in the field.[49]
  • 2014 – Commercial batteries[clarification needed] from Amprius Corp. reached 650 Wh/L (a 20% increase), using a silicon anode and were delivered to customers.[50]
  • 2016 – Z. Qi, and Gary Koenig reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer sized LiCoO
    2     using a template-based approach.[51]
  • 2019 – The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino "for the development of lithium ion batteries".[52] Goodenough and Whittingham were awarded for their cathodes, and Yoshino for the first working prototype.

As of 2016, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 28 gigawatt-hours, with 16.4 GWh in China.[53]

Market

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Industry produced about 660 million cylindrical lithium-ion cells in 2012; the 18650 size is by far the most popular for cylindrical cells. If Tesla were to have met its goal of shipping 40,000 Model S electric cars in 2014 and if the 85-kWh battery, which uses 7,104 of these cells, proved as popular overseas as it was in the U.S., a 2014 study projected that the Model S alone would use almost 40 percent of estimated global cylindrical battery production during 2014.[54] As of 2013, production was gradually shifting to higher-capacity 3,000+ mAh cells. Annual flat polymer cell demand was expected to exceed 700 million in 2013.[55][needs update]

In 2015 cost estimates ranged from $300–500/kWh[clarification needed].[56]

The average residential energy storage systems installation cost will drop from 1600 $/kWh in 2015 to 250 $/kWh by 2040 and it is expected to see the price with 70% reduction by 2030.[57]

For a Li-ion storage coupled with photovoltaics and an anaerobic digestion biogas power plant, Li-ion will be more cost-effective if it is cycled more frequently (hence a higher lifetime electricity output) although the cell lifetime is reduced due to degradation.[58]

In 2016 GM revealed they would be paying US$145/kWh for the batteries in the Chevy Bolt EV.[59]. In 2019, VW noted it was paying US$100/kWh for its next generation of electric vehicles. [60]

References

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  1. ^ Whittingham, M. S. (1976). "Electrical Energy Storage and Intercalation Chemistry". Science. 192 (4244): 1126–1127. Bibcode:1976Sci...192.1126W. doi:10.1126/science.192.4244.1126. PMID 17748676.
  2. ^ Fletcher, Seth (2011). Bottled Lightning: Superbatteries, Electric Cars, and the New Lithium Economy. Macmillan.
  3. ^ "XXIV.—On chemical analysis by spectrum-observations". Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society of London. 13 (3): 270. 1861. doi:10.1039/QJ8611300270.
  4. ^ Besenhard, J.O.; Fritz, H.P. (1974). "Cathodic Reduction of Graphite in Organic Solutions of Alkali and NR4+ Salts". J. Electroanal. Chem. 53 (2): 329–333. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(74)80146-4. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Besenhard, J. O. (1976). "The electrochemical preparation and properties of ionic alkali metal-and NR4-graphite intercalation compounds in organic electrolytes". Carbon. 14 (2): 111–115. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(76)90119-6.
  6. ^ Schöllhorn, R.; Kuhlmann, R.; Besenhard, J. O. (1976). "Topotactic redox reactions and ion exchange of layered MoO3 bronzes". Materials Research Bulletin. 11: 83–90. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(76)90218-X.
  7. ^ Besenhard, J. O.; Schöllhorn, R. (1976). "The discharge reaction mechanism of the MoO3 electrode in organic electrolytes". Journal of Power Sources. 1 (3): 267–276. Bibcode:1976JPS.....1..267B. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(76)81004-X.
  8. ^ Besenhard, J. O.; Eichinger, G. (1976). "High energy density lithium cells". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 68: 1–18. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(76)80298-7.
  9. ^ Eichinger, G.; Besenhard, J. O. (1976). "High energy density lithium cells". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 72: 1–31. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(76)80072-1.
  10. ^ Overland, Indra (1 March 2019). "The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths". Energy Research & Social Science. 49: 36–40. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018. ISSN 2214-6296.
  11. ^ Heller, Adam (25 November 1975). "Electrochemical Cell". United States Patent. Retrieved 18 November 2013.
  12. ^ Zanini, M.; Basu, S.; Fischer, J. E. (1978). "Alternate synthesis and reflectivity spectrum of stage 1 lithium—graphite intercalation compound". Carbon. 16 (3): 211–212. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(78)90026-X.
  13. ^ Basu, S.; Zeller, C.; Flanders, P. J.; Fuerst, C. D.; Johnson, W. D.; Fischer, J. E. (1979). "Synthesis and properties of lithium-graphite intercalation compounds". Materials Science and Engineering. 38 (3): 275–283. doi:10.1016/0025-5416(79)90132-0.
  14. ^ US 4304825, Basu; Samar, "Rechargeable battery", issued 8 December 1981, assigned to Bell Telephone Laboratories 
  15. ^ Godshall, N.A.; Raistrick, I.D.; Huggins, R.A. (1980). "Thermodynamic investigations of ternary lithium-transition metal-oxygen cathode materials". Materials Research Bulletin. 15 (5): 561. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90135-X.
  16. ^ Godshall, Ned A. (17 October 1979) "Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium -Transition Metal-Oxide Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries: Li2MnO4 spinel, LiCoO2, and LiFeO2", Presentation at 156th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Los Angeles, CA.
  17. ^ Godshall, Ned A. (18 May 1980) Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium-Transition Metal-Oxygen Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University
  18. ^ "USPTO search for inventions by "Goodenough, John"". Patft.uspto.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
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    x    CoO
    2    (0<x<-1): A new cathode material for batteries of high energy density". Materials Research Bulletin. 15 (6): 783–789. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90012-4.
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  21. ^ Godshall, N (1986). "Lithium transport in ternary lithium-copper-oxygen cathode materials". Solid State Ionics. 18–19: 788–793. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(86)90263-8.
  22. ^ International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Rome, 27–29 April 1982, C.L.U.P. Ed. Milan, Abstract #23
  23. ^ Yazami, R.; Touzain, P. (1983). "A reversible graphite-lithium negative electrode for electrochemical generators". Journal of Power Sources. 9 (3): 365–371. Bibcode:1983JPS.....9..365Y. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(83)87040-2.
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  25. ^ a b "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
  26. ^ Yamabe, T. (2015). "Lichiumu Ion Niji Denchi: Kenkyu Kaihatu No Genryu Wo Kataru" [Lithium Ion Rechargeable Batteries: Tracing the Origins of Research and Development: Focus on the History of Negative-Electrode Material Development]. The Journal Kagaku (in Japanese). 70 (12): 40–46. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
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  29. ^ US 4601849, Yata, S., "Electrically conductive organic polymeric material and process for production thereof" 
  30. ^ Nigrey, Paul J (1981). "Lightweight Rechargeable Storage Batteries Using Polyacetylene (CH)x as the Cathode-Active Material". Chem. Rev. 128 (8): 1651. doi:10.1149/1.2127704.
  31. ^ Godshall, N. A.; Raistrick, I. D. and Huggins, R. A. U.S. patent 4,340,652 "Ternary Compound Electrode for Lithium Cells"; issued 20 July 1982, filed by Stanford University on 30 July 1980.
  32. ^ Thackeray, M. M.; David, W. I. F.; Bruce, P. G.; Goodenough, J. B. (1983). "Lithium insertion into manganese spinels". Materials Research Bulletin. 18 (4): 461–472. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(83)90138-1.
  33. ^ US 4668595, Yoshino; Akira, "Secondary Battery", issued 10 May 1985, assigned to Asahi Kasei 
  34. ^ Manthiram, A.; Goodenough, J. B. (1989). "Lithium insertion into Fe2(SO4)3 frameworks". Journal of Power Sources. 26 (3–4): 403–408. Bibcode:1989JPS....26..403M. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(89)80153-3.
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  38. ^ Padhi, A.K., Naujundaswamy, K.S., Goodenough, J. B. (1996) "LiFePO
    4    : a novel cathode material for rechargeable batteries". Electrochimical Society Meeting Abstracts, 96-1, p. 73
  39. ^ C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney "Layered Lithium-Manganese Oxide Electrodes Derived from Rock-Salt LixMnyOz (x+y=z) Precursors" 194th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Boston, MA, Nov.1-6, (1998)
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  49. ^ "Lithium Ion Battery Pioneers Receive Draper Prize, Engineering’s Top Honor" Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, University of Texas, 6 January 2014
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  51. ^ Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (16 August 2016). "High-Performance LiCoO2Sub-Micrometer Materials from Scalable Microparticle Template Processing". ChemistrySelect. 1 (13): 3992–3999. doi:10.1002/slct.201600872.
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  56. ^ Ramsey, Mike (22 June 2015). "24M Technologies Launches Cheaper-to-Produce Lithium-Ion Cell". Retrieved 15 December 2015.
  57. ^ Lai, Chun Sing; Jia, Youwei; Lai, Loi Lei; Xu, Zhao; McCulloch, Malcolm D.; Wong, Kit Po (October 2017). "A comprehensive review on large-scale photovoltaic system with applications of electrical energy storage". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 78: 439–451. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.078.
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