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Scottish invasion of England in 1648
Part of the Second English Civil War
Date8 July – 24 August 1648
Location
North-west England
Result Parliamentarian victory
Belligerents
Engagers
English Royalists
Parliamentarians
Commanders and leaders
Duke of Hamilton
Earl of Callendar
Earl of Middleton
William Baillie
Marmaduke Langdale
Oliver Cromwell
John Lambert
Strength
c.24,000, not all of whom were engaged 11,200, of whom 9,000 were engaged
Casualties and losses
  • c. 1,000 killed
  • c. 5,000 captured
  • Fewer than 100 killed
  • Several hundred wounded
The location of some places mentioned in the text, shown on a map of north-west England (with modern boundaries)

Primary sources

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Preston

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There is a surprisingly limited range of sources for the battle of Preston. There are no contemporary images nor illustrations of the battle other than two maps which concentrate on the layout of the town rather than the battle. There are few archaeological finds tied to the battle and little prospect of any more being unearthed.[1]

There are three relatively full accounts of the battle written from a Royalist perspective. One, Impartial Relation, was written within a week of the battle by the experienced soldier Marmaduke Langdale, who commanded the English Royalists who bore the brunt of the fighting. Several versions of his account exist; they are largely in agreement with each other, but with several significant discrepancies. Another was written by Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, a senior Royalist politician, more than 30 years after the battle. His main source is Langdale, although he puts the fighting more in context, and pins most of the blame for the Royalist defeat on Scottish ineptitude. Letter from Holland was written by an English volunteer serving in the Scottish army, possibly in the body guard of Hamilton, the Scottish commander. The unnamed author evinces a considerable dislike for his Scottish allies. Two partial accounts of the campaign were written by senior Scottish commanders in the 1670s.[2][3]

There are two equivalent accounts from the Parliamentarian side. Oliver Cromwell, commander of the Parliamentarian army, wrote a series of long formal letters in the three days after the battle recounting events. They are considered to form, broadly, an accurate record and to be free of bias. John Hodgson, a lieutenant in a Parliamentarian infantry regiment, wrote his memoirs in 1683, focusing on the first of the two main engagements of the day. Two briefer accounts by participants of parts of the campaign or battle are the diary entries of Captain Samuel Birch and two pages in the memoirs of Major Edward Robinson.[2]

Winwick

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The three most useful accounts of the short campaign which included the battles of Preston and Winwick were written by Oliver Cromwell, commander of the Parliamentarian army; Marmaduke Langdale, commander of the English Royalists who bore the brunt of the fighting at Preston; and John Hodgson, a lieutenant in a Parliamentarian infantry regiment. The first two accounts were written shortly after the campaign, while Hodgson wrote his memoirs in 1683. Cromwell was the only one of the three present at Winwick. There is also a letter by the Parliamentarian cavalry officer Major John Sanderson giving details of his participation in the battle and an account of it written by the Royalist James Heath in 1661. Two partial accounts of the campaign were written by senior Scottish commanders in the 1670s.[2][3]

Background

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In 1639, and again in 1640, Charles I, who was king of both Scotland and England in a personal union, went to war with his Scottish subjects in the Bishops' Wars. These had arisen from the Scots' refusal to accept Charles's attempts to reform the Scottish Kirk to bring it into line with English religious practices.[4] Charles was not successful in these endeavours, and the ensuing settlement established the Covenanters' hold on Scottish government, requiring all civil office-holders, parliamentarians and clerics to sign the National Covenant, and giving the Scottish Parliament the authority to approve all the king's councillors in Scotland.[5] After years of rising tensions the relationship between Charles and his English Parliament broke down, starting the First English Civil War in 1642.[6]

An oil painting of Charles I, depicted as a bearded, long-haired man in armour riding a white horse
Charles I

In England Charles's supporters, the Royalists, were opposed by the combined forces of the Parliamentarians and the Scots. In 1643 the latter pair formed an alliance bound by the Solemn League and Covenant, in which the English Parliament agreed to reform the English church along similar lines to the Scottish Kirk in return for the Scots' military assistance.[7] After four years of war the Royalists were defeated and Charles surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646.[8] The Scots agreed with the English Parliament on a peace settlement which would be put before the king. Known as the Newcastle Propositions, it would have required all the king's subjects in Scotland, England and Ireland to sign the Solemn League and Covenant, brought the church in each kingdom into accordance with the Covenant and with Presbyterianism, and ceded much of Charles's secular authority as King of England to the English Parliament. The Scots spent some months trying to persuade Charles to agree to these terms, but he refused to do so. Under pressure from the English to withdraw their army now the war was over, the Scots handed Charles over to the English Parliamentary forces in exchange for a financial settlement and left England on 3 February 1647.[9]

Charles then engaged in separate negotiations with different factions. Presbyterian English Parliamentarians and the Scots wanted him to accept a modified version of the Newcastle Propositions, but in June 1647, Cornet George Joyce of the New Model Army seized Charles,[10] and the army council pressed him to accept the Heads of Proposals, a less demanding set of terms which, crucially, did not require a Presbyterian reformation of the church.[11] He rejected these as well and instead signed an offer known as the Engagement, which had been thrashed out with the Scottish delegation, on 26 December 1647. Charles agreed to confirm the Solemn League and Covenant by Act of Parliament in both kingdoms, and to accept Presbyterianism in England, but only for a trial period of three years, in return for the Scots' assistance in enforcing his claim to the English throne.[12]

When the delegation returned to Edinburgh with the Engagement, the Scots were bitterly divided on whether to ratify its terms. Its supporters, who became known as the Engagers, argued that it offered the best chance the Scots would get of acceptance of the Covenant across the three kingdoms, and that rejecting it risked pushing Charles to accept the Heads of Proposals. It was opposed by those who believed that to send an army into England on behalf of the king would be to break the Solemn League and Covenant, and that it offered no guarantee of a lasting Presbyterian church in England; the Kirk went so far as to issue a declaration on 5 May 1648 condemning the Engagement as a breach of God's law.[13] After a protracted political struggle, the Engagers gained a majority in the Scottish Parliament[14] and on 11 April 1648 repudiated the 1643 treaty with the Parliamentarians. On 29 April they seized the English border town of Carlisle.[15]

Who seized Carlisle? The Engagers? A pre-existing Scottish army?


War

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An oil painting depicting Oliver Cromwell, wearing a suit of plate armour (but no helmet)

Meanwhile, the coalition of interests which had cohered on the Parliamentarian side during the first war fractured in 1647. There were risings in support of the Royalist cause in England and Wales[16] and mutinies by Parliamentarian garrisons. These were especially serious in Kent, Essex and South Wales and marked the start of the Second English Civil War. Six English warships defected to the Royalists.[17] The most reliable military force the Parliamentarian leaders had at their disposal was the New Model Army.[note 1] This had been split into garrisons across the country; its commander, Sir Thomas Fairfax, based in London, put down the revolt in Kent on 1 June at the fiercely fought Battle of Maidstone. He then moved into Essex and began an eleven-week siege of Colchester.[16] In South Wales the Parliamentarians faced mutinous garrisons in Chepstow, Tenby and Pembroke Castle as well as Royalist risings.[15]

Langdale and Lambert in the NW to 8 July.

The Scots raised an army under the command of the Duke of Hamilton to send into England to fight on behalf of the King.[14] With rebellion breaking out in England and Wales and the Scottish army marching for the border the future of Britain hung in the balance, in the view of the modern historian Ian Gentles.[20] The summer of 1648 was extremely wet and stormy, causing both sides to be hampered by the weather.[21] Major General John Lambert was in charge of Parliamentarian forces in the north of England. His men harassed the Royalist force around Carlisle, gathered information and besieged Pontefract Castle from early June.[22] Marmaduke Langdale, who had fought as a cavalry commander in the First Civil War, raised 4,000 English Royalists in northern England and covered the arrival of Hamilton's army.[23]

When Lieutenant General Oliver Cromwell arrived in South Wales on 11 May with 5,000 men of the New Model Army he found the local Parliamentarian forces gaining control.[15] A force of 8,000 ill-armed Royalists had been defeated by a much smaller force under Colonel Thomas Horton on the 8 May at the battle of St Fagans.[24] Tenby was besieged by Horton and capitulated on 31 May while Cromwell besieged Pembroke Castle in the far south west on 31 May, hampered by a lack of artillery.[25] As the situation with regards to the siege and the restiveness of the local populace improved, Cromwell despatched regiments one at a time to march north and reinforce Lambert.[26] Siege guns arrived on 1 July and the castle surrendered on the 11th.[27] Cromwell mopped up and was marching east with more than 4,000 men within a week.[28]


The modern historian Malcolm Wanklyn describes Cromwell's decision to attack an enemy twice his strength as "an enormous gamble", a reflection of Cromwell's growing belief that he was God's chosen instrument.[29]

Cromwell marching north.

Invasion

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An oil painting of James Hamilton, shown in full dress armour without a helmet
James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton

Hamilton crossed the border into England on 8 July and joined with Langdale's force at Carlisle on the 9th.[30] After some fierce skirmishing around Appleby Lambert's smaller parliamentarian force withdrew, concentrating around Barnard Castle, to the east of the Pennines. Over the following three weeks the Scots besieged and captured Appleby Castle, giving the impression that they planned to move into Yorkshire. They then moved south to Hornby, with Langdale's 4,000 men acting as an advance guard and pushing as far as Settle by 9 August, suggesting that they would continue south to the west of the Pennines. Lambert, despite being steadily reinforced. acted on Cromwell's orders and stood on the defensive. On 2 August he took his corps south and joined up with Cromwell and his accompanying infantry at Weatherby on 12 August. Cromwell and took command of the combined force.[31]

The Scot's had sent a force to Ulster in 1642 to intervene in the Irish Confederate Wars. It was recalled to join the invasion of England.[30] Some of the ships and boats ferrying the men of this corps back to Scotland were intercepted by the Parliamentarian navy; 300 men of one regiment are known to have been captured. How many mustered for the invasion is unclear, but it was probably around 2,800 – all of them experienced veterans. There effectiveness was reduced due to their commander, Major General George Munro, refusing to accept any subordination to Hamilton. This led to Munro's corps manoeuvring as an independent force; when the main Royalist force was engaged in the deciding battle of the campaign at Preston Munro's men were more than 40 miles (64 km) to the north.[32][33]

More on Lambert, 9 July – 12 August.

On 13 August Cromwell directed his army westward, assuming or guessing that his opponent would continue south down the English west coast, rather than head directly for London via Upper Ribblesdale and Craven. It wasn't until the next day that a Royalist council of war agreed on the west coast route.[34] Langdale informed Hamilton that the combined Parliamentarian force was bearing down on their east flank, but this warning was largely disregarded.[35]

On the morning of 17 August the Parliamentarian army was largely concentrated in the area of the Hodder bridge over the River Ribble, 12 miles (19 km) east of the road being taken by the Royalists.[36] The Royalists had failed to concentrate their forces. Monro, with his 2,800 experienced soldiers was at Kirkby Lonsdale, 30 miles (48 km) north of Preston, waiting for a promised ammunition train expected from Scotland, when he would follow on with the Scottish artillery.[36] The bulk of the Scottish cavalry and their commander the Earl of Middleton were up to 16–20 miles (26–32 km) south of their infantry; the balance were closer to their main body. All had dispersed to forage. The separation and the scattering of the cavalry were both militarily unwise.[36][37] The Scottish infantry, the largest single contingent of the Scottish force, was just to the north of Preston. Langdale's corps of 4,000 men was 8 miles (13 km) north east of Preston and falling back ahead of the Parliamentarian advance scouts.[38]

Battle of Preston

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A colour photograph showing a re-enactment of a seventeenth century battle, with a unit of infantry firing muskets
A modern re-enactment of a musket volley of the period
A colourful oil painting depicting two forces of 17th-century soldiers fighting on a large stone-built river bridge
A 19th-century impression of the fight for Preston Bridge

On the morning of 17 August the Scottish infantry, the largest single contingent of the Royalist army, was just to the north of Preston. Langdale's corps of 4,000 men was 8 miles (13 km) north east of Preston and falling back ahead of the Parliamentarian advance scouts. Langdale again warned Hamilton as to the situation and was again ignored. Hamilton concentrated on passing the Scottish infantry over the Ribble bridge while Langdale set up a defensive position north west of Preston. An initial Parliamentarian attack was beaten back and follow up assaults resulted in fierce fighting. After four hours the weight of numbers told and the Parliamentarians broke through. They cut off all the Royalist forces north of the Ribble and brought the bridge under a withering fire. The bridge was strongly defended by 600 Scottish infantry, but the Parliamentarians captured it in two hours of furious fighting, by which time night was falling.[39][40] Approximately 1,000 Royalists were dead and 4,000 captured by the end of the day.[41]

Langdale's stand

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On 17 August Hamilton intended to get the whole of his army across the Ribble Bridge, immediately south of Preston, and on the march to Wigan and then Manchester. Before the first unit had crossed, Langdale rode up to personally inform him that the whole of Cromwell's force was advancing from the north east and was already engaging his command. Hamilton dismissed this report as Langdale exaggerating another probe by Lambert; he ordered the infantry to commence crossing the bridge, but sent a small unit of Scottish cavalry to assist Langdale. These cavalry were equipped with lances not suited to the terrain in which they were deployed.[42]

In fact, the Parliamentarian advance guard[note 2] was pushing back Langdale's outlying troops in a confused running battle.[44] Langdale had his main force take up defensive positions to the north west of Ribbleton Moor behind the deep cut of Eaves Brook, which runs east-west. As his outlying forces fell back they joined this line. This position halted the advance force of Parliamentarians a little before noon. The 8,000 or so Parliamentarians in the main body caught up and began deploying for battle, while skirmishing vigorously[45][43] in heavy rain.[46] Langdale's aim was to buy time – force the Parliamentarian army to spend several hours deploying into battle formation – to allow the Scots just to his rear to reinforce him.[45] Langdale stretched his line as far as the available troops would permit to avoid being outflanked, about three-quarters of a mile (1 km). This meant that his defensive line was thin and had little depth.[47] When it was realised that Langdale had been correct in stating that a full Parliamentarian army was advancing – some time after noon – most of the Scottish infantry had already crossed the Ribble Bridge and were marching south.[43]

In mid-afternoon Cromwell opened the battle proper by charging the cavalry of the advance guard down the road, hoping to split Langdale's line. However, the road was blocked just behind the front line by a force of pikemen and the by-passed musketmen fired into the sides of the stalled cavalry formation. The Scottish lancers then attacked and threw the Parliamentarians back.[43] Five Parliamentarian infantry regiments then took up the assault. Two fresh cavalry regiments attempted to position themselves for a fresh rush along the road, but found the going difficult as the road was jammed with wounded horses and were driven off by musket fire. For over an hour the battle stalled on the line of hedgerows occupied by Langdale's infantry amidst fierce fighting, with the Parliamentarians suffering heavy casualties.[48]

Lambert ordered a fresh brigade forward on the Parliamentarian left wing and the Royalists broke and fled. The initial Parliamentarian break through coming on the Royalist's right cut most of them off from possible retreat to the Ribble Bridge. Many surrendered or were cut down. Others reached Preston, but the fight had gone out of them and the town was cleared by two regiments of Parliamentarian cavalry. There is no record of the cavalry element of Langdale's force taking part in the fighting and when their infantry were defeated they retreated north towards Kirksby Lonsdale. Those Scottish cavalry north of the bridge withdrew in the same direction. Two regiments of Parliamentarian cavalry pursued them.[49]

Fight for the bridges

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A colourful oil painting depicting two forces of 17th-century soldiers fighting on a large stone-built river bridge
A 19th-century impression of the fight for Preston Bridge

Watery Lane

Hamilton became caught up in the rout of Langdale's troops and the Parliamentarian pursuit, took refuge in Preston and lost what control over the battle he had. It is probable – but not certain, the sources disagree – that two Scottish infantry brigades still to the north of the Ribble were ordered to move to the bridge and defend it, but were overrun in the confusion before they could get there.[49] Parliamentarian musketmen took up positions on the escarpment north of the Ribble from which their fire could dominate the access to the bridge. Parliamentarian infantry then attempted to capture the bridge, but it took two hours of furious fighting before their pikemen were able to push their way across. They briefly pursued the Scots, then withdrew as it grew dark.[50]

Darwen bridge.

Cromwell, fearful of a Scottish counter attack, had his men line the north bank of the Ribble overnight. The Scots in the area south of the Ribble consolidated at Walton Hill, 1 mile (1.6 km) south east of the bridge. There they were joined by Hamilton who had persuaded his horse to swim the river.[50] A council of war decided that the survivors should make their way immediately south, to be well away from Cromwell's force by morning and to link up with their main force of cavalry at Wigan. To move as rapidly and stealthily as possible the Scots abandoned their baggage and ammunition trains, only taking with them what each man could carry.[51] The baggage, equipment, artillery and ammunition left behind was supposed to be destroyed once the march was well under way, but it was not and was all captured before daylight.[52]

Retreat

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Trim

With the baggage discovered it was clear that the Scots were making off, relying on the dark and the heavy rain to mask their march. Cromwell was alerted: he pulled together a force of cavalry and sent them across the bridge onto the road south. Within 3 miles (5 km) they had closed with the few cavalry the Scots were using as a rear guard. The whole of the mounted contingent of the New Model Army – less the two cavalry regiments following Langdale, but reinforced by some Lancashire troops – was now in pursuit, some 2,500 cavalry and dragoons. Their advance guard harried the Scottish cavalry, determined to break through them to force the Royalist infantry to stand and fight. The Scottish cavalry under Middleton, recalled from Wigan, took up a position to hold off the Parliamentarian pursuit. Throughout 18 August the Parliamentarians pressed, so aggressively that in one skirmish the commander of the advance guard was killed. All of the infantry of the New Model Army was now following their mounted comrades, a further 2,900 men. The Parliamentarians were still outnumbered by the surviving Scots, who numbered approximately 7,000. Local militia had been left in charge of Preston and the prisoners.[53][54] By nightfall both sides were exhausted. The Scots entered Wigan, thoroughly plundered it and marched on through the night. Some men had not eaten nor slept for two nights, cavalrymen fell asleep in their saddles, the rain continued.[55]

Battle of Winwick

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A colour photograph of a stone-built English-style church with a spire
St Oswald's Church, Winwick

On 19 August, some 9 miles (14 km) south of Wigan, the Scots halted between the villages of Newton and Winwick at a naturally strong defensive position.[56][54] The Scots numbered about 7,000 men,[57] while the Parliamentarians were pursuing with nearly all of the New Model Army, supplemented by some local troops: approximately 2,500 cavalry and dragoons and 2,900 infantry for a total of some 5,400–5,500 men.[58][41] The Parliamentarian horses were exhausted and unable to manage more than a walk.[41]

The Parliamentarian pursuers rode up the road and in the words of one of their number, Captain John Hodgson, the Scots "snaffled our forlorn [advance guard], and put them to retreat".[56] Once Parliamentarian infantry arrived they attempted to storm the Scottish positions but were held up. Fierce fighting continued for several hours, with repeated Parliamentarian charges and prolonged close quarter fighting between the opposing pike formations[59] with the Parliamentarians unable to dislodge the Scots.[41][60] The Parliamentarian infantry fell back.[61] The Parliamentarian cavalry pinned the Scots in place – who by now had run out of dry gunpowder – while their infantry took a circuitous route behind woods and in dead ground to emerge on the flank and rear of the Scots. The sight of the enemy emerging on their flank was too much for the exhausted Scots, who broke and fled. A large number routed towards Winwick and the Parliamentarian cavalry followed, cutting down many. The Scots discarded their weapons and crammed into the village church, where they were taken prisoner.[61] Seeing that the battle was lost, the Scottish cavalry withdrew in the direction of Warrington, 3 miles (5 km) to the south. The majority of the Scottish infantry, about 2,700 men, followed them, hard pressed by the Parliamentarians.[62]

When the remaining Scottish infantry, fewer than 2,600 men, reached Warrington late on 19 August they discovered that their cavalry and their commander had abandoned them. Hamilton left a message saying they would "preserve themselves for a better time" and ordering the infantry to surrender on the best terms they could get. The commander of the infantry, Lieutenant General William Baillie, was at such a loss that he turned to his staff and "beseeched any that would to shoot him through the head". Warrington bridge was barricaded and terms of surrender were sought. Cromwell took them prisoner, sparing their lives and their immediate personal possessions.[62] Approximately 1,300 mounted Scots headed south.[41] Discipline collapsed: troopers, even officers, deserted; one trooper shot his sergeant and was himself executed. Local militia repeatedly attacked, one group capturing the commander of the Scottish cavalry. The weather continued to be wet and stormy. At Uttoxeter on 24 August a handful of the senior officers left, some eventually made their way to safety. Hamilton was too sick to move and surrendered on terms to the still pursuing Parliamentarians: the prisoners were promised their lives and their clothes, they were not to be beaten, the sick and wounded would be treated locally and Hamilton was allowed six servants.[63][64]

Appleby and Munro

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1,100 Royalists surrender at Appleby on terms. Commanded by Sir Philip Musgrave, 2nd Baronet and Thomas Tyldesley.[65]

Casualties

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The number of casualties are difficult to calculate. Modern historians accept that approximately 1,000 Royalists were killed at Preston and 4,000 taken prisoner.[54] During the retreat from Preston and at Winwick and its aftermath approximately a further 1,000 Royalists are believed to have died and 7,000 to have been captured – contemporary estimates vary widely. Neither contemporary nor modern estimates agree on the total numbers.[66][67][3] Those Scottish prisoners who had served voluntarily, as opposed to being conscripted, were sold as slaves: to work the land in the Americas or as galley slaves to Venice.[3][68] Hamilton was beheaded for treason in March 1649.[69]

The English Parliament announced that their losses during the whole campaign had been 100 or fewer killed. Cromwell declined to quantify the loss, but did speak of "many" wounded. The Parliamentary figure of 100 dead is widely used by modern historians[41] but Bull and Seed are sceptical and estimate that in excess of 500 were killed or wounded.[70]

Aftermath

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A black-and-white 17th-century image of a large crowd in front of an execution platform
Contemporary German print of the execution of Charles I

The battles of Preston and Winwick was the last battles of the Second English Civil War. Hearing that the Royalist army had been destroyed, Colchester surrendered to Fairfax on 27 August 1648 on harsh terms.[71] This effectively ended the war, although Pontefract held out until 22 March the following year.[72]

The destruction of the Engager army led to further political upheaval in Scotland and the faction opposed to the Engagement was able to gain control of the government, with the assistance of a group of English Parliamentarian cavalry led by Cromwell.[14][73] Exasperated by the duplicity of Charles I and by the English Parliament's refusal to stop negotiating with him and accept the demands of the New Model Army, the Army purged Parliament and established the Rump Parliament, which appointed a High Court of Justice to try Charles I for treason against the English people. He was convicted and on 30 January 1649 beheaded.[74] On 19 May, with the establishment of the Commonwealth of England, the country became a republic.[75]

The Scottish Parliament, which had not been consulted before the King's execution, declared his son Charles II, King of Britain.[76][77] Charles II set sail to Scotland, landing on 23 June 1650 and the Scottish Parliament set about rapidly recruiting an army to support the new king.[78] The leaders of the English Commonwealth felt threatened by the Scots reassembling an army and the New Model Army, led by Cromwell, invaded Scotland on 22 July. After 14 months of hard fighting Scotland was largely subjugated and a Scottish counter-invasion was crushed at the Battle of Worcester.[79]

The defeated Scottish government was dissolved and the English Parliament absorbed the kingdom of Scotland into the Commonwealth.[80] Military rule was imposed, with 10,000 English troops garrisoned across the country to quell the threat of local uprisings.[81][82] After in-fighting between factions in the English Parliament and the army, Cromwell ruled over the Commonwealth as Lord Protector from December 1653 until his death in September 1658.[83] On 3 February the dominant army faction, under Lieutenant General George Monck, called new parliamentary elections. These resulted in the Convention Parliament which on 8 May 1660 declared that Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I.[84] Charles II returned from exile and was crowned king of England on 23 April 1661,[note 3] completing the Restoration.[87]

Notes, citations and sources

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Notes

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  1. ^ The New Model Army was a standing army formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians with an establishment of 22,000. It was a permanent and fully professional force, and commanded by Thomas Fairfax it gained a formidable reputation during the last two years of the First English Civil War.[18][19]
  2. ^ Given as 600 men by Wanklyn[43] or 900 – 200 infantry, 500 cavalry and 200 dragoons – by Bull and Seed[44]
  3. ^ He had been crowned king of Scotland twelve years earlier on 1 January 1651 at Scone,[85] the traditional place of coronation for Scottish monarchs.[86]

Citations

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  1. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 187, 233 n. 4.
  2. ^ a b c Wanklyn 2014, pp. 187–189.
  3. ^ a b c d Battle of Winwick 2023.
  4. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 2002, pp. 15–16.
  5. ^ Stewart 2016, pp. 124–125.
  6. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 2002, pp. 26–28, 32.
  7. ^ Woolrych 2002, p. 271.
  8. ^ Woolrych 2002, pp. 329–330.
  9. ^ Woolrych 2002, pp. 340–349.
  10. ^ Woolrych 2002, p. 364.
  11. ^ Gentles 2002, pp. 144–150.
  12. ^ Stewart 2016, pp. 258–259.
  13. ^ Stewart 2016, pp. 258–261.
  14. ^ a b c Furgol 2002, p. 64.
  15. ^ a b c Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 49–50.
  16. ^ a b Wanklyn 2014, p. 185.
  17. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 49–50, 54.
  18. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 161, 182.
  19. ^ Baker 1986, p. 83.
  20. ^ Gentles 2002, p. 152.
  21. ^ Royle 2005, p. 483.
  22. ^ Woolrych 2002, p. 415.
  23. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 52.
  24. ^ Gaunt 1991, pp. 68–69.
  25. ^ Gaunt 1991, p. 71.
  26. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 54.
  27. ^ Royle 2005, p. 457.
  28. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 58.
  29. ^ Wanklyn 2014, p. 199.
  30. ^ a b Wanklyn 2014, p. 190.
  31. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 190–191.
  32. ^ Royle 2005, p. 480.
  33. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 40–41, 61.
  34. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 190, 192.
  35. ^ Wanklyn 2014, p. 192.
  36. ^ a b c Wanklyn 2014, p. 193.
  37. ^ Braddick 2009, p. 544.
  38. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 193–194.
  39. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 193–197.
  40. ^ Woolrych 2002, p. 417.
  41. ^ a b c d e f Brooks 2005, p. 492.
  42. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 194–195.
  43. ^ a b c d Wanklyn 2014, p. 195.
  44. ^ a b Bull & Seed 1998, p. 63.
  45. ^ a b Bull & Seed 1998, p. 64.
  46. ^ Baker 1986, p. 115.
  47. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 64–65.
  48. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 195–196.
  49. ^ a b Wanklyn 2014, p. 196.
  50. ^ a b Wanklyn 2014, pp. 196–197.
  51. ^ Wanklyn 2014, p. 197.
  52. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 76.
  53. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 77–78.
  54. ^ a b c Brooks 2005, pp. 490, 492.
  55. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 78–79.
  56. ^ a b Bull & Seed 1998, p. 79.
  57. ^ Brooks 2005, p. 490.
  58. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 78.
  59. ^ Hannay 1911, p. 315.
  60. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 79–80.
  61. ^ a b Bull & Seed 1998, p. 80.
  62. ^ a b Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 80–81.
  63. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 84–85.
  64. ^ Wanklyn 2014, pp. 197–198.
  65. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 88.
  66. ^ Royle 2005, p. 491.
  67. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 100, 125.
  68. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 93–94, 101.
  69. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, pp. 93–94.
  70. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 101.
  71. ^ Bull & Seed 1998, p. 87.
  72. ^ Royle 2005, p. 499.
  73. ^ Young 1996, p. 215.
  74. ^ Woolrych 2002, pp. 430–433.
  75. ^ Gentles 2002, p. 154.
  76. ^ Dow 1979, p. 7.
  77. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 2002, p. 32.
  78. ^ Furgol 2002, p. 65.
  79. ^ Woolrych 2002, pp. 482–499.
  80. ^ MacKenzie 2009, p. 159.
  81. ^ Dow 1979, p. 23.
  82. ^ Wheeler 2002, p. 244.
  83. ^ Sherwood 1997, pp. 7–11.
  84. ^ Keeble 2002, p. 48.
  85. ^ Woolrych 2002, p. 492.
  86. ^ Rodwell 2013, p. 25.
  87. ^ Lodge 1969, p. 6.

Sources

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  • Baker, Anthony (1986) [1986]. A Battlefield Atlas of the English Civil War. London: Promotional Reprint. ISBN 1-85648-334-7.
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