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Coordinates: 42°42′49″N 87°47′27″W / 42.71361°N 87.79083°W / 42.71361; -87.79083
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  • Johnson Wax Headquarters (original 6.7K, target 34K)
  • ("s. c. johnson" or "s.c. johnson" or "sc johnson" or "johnson wax" or "johnson and son" or "johnson and sons") and ("administration building" or "office building" or "building" or "tower" or "headquarters") and ("racine" or "wisconsin" or "wisc" or "wis" or "wi" or "lloyd wright") NOT ("spare times" or "display ad" OR "classified ad" OR "advertisement" "no title" OR "arrival of buyers" OR "paid notice")

Administration Building and Research Tower, S.C. Johnson Company
1969 photo of headquarters building with tower
Epicgenius/sandbox/draft2 is located in Wisconsin
Epicgenius/sandbox/draft2
Epicgenius/sandbox/draft2 is located in the United States
Epicgenius/sandbox/draft2
LocationRacine, Wisconsin
Coordinates42°42′49″N 87°47′27″W / 42.71361°N 87.79083°W / 42.71361; -87.79083
Built1936
ArchitectFrank Lloyd Wright; Peters, Wesley W.
Architectural styleStreamline Moderne
NRHP reference No.74002275[1]
Significant dates
Added to NRHPDecember 27, 1974
Designated NHLJanuary 7, 1976[2]

Johnson Wax Headquarters is the world headquarters and administration building of S. C. Johnson & Son in Racine, Wisconsin. Designed by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright for the company's president, Herbert F. "Hib" Johnson, the building was constructed from 1936 to 1939.[3] Its distinctive "lily pad" columns and other innovations revived Wright's career at a point when he was losing influence.[4] Also known as the Johnson Wax Administration Building, it and the nearby 14-story Johnson Wax Research Tower (built 1944–1950), also by Wright, were designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1976 as Administration Building and Research Tower, S.C. Johnson and Son.[2] The Tower portion currently serves as a museum of Wright's design and company history, periodically open for public tours.

Site

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The administration building occupies a square site measuring 245 feet (75 m) on each side.[5]

On the Johnson Wax Headquarters campus at 1525 Howe Street is the Golden Rondelle Theater,[6] which functions as a visitor center for the Johnson Wax Headquarters.[7] When it operated as a 1964 New York World's Fair pavilion, its canopy shielded a ground-level exhibit space with an information center and a short film.[8] The Golden Rondelle Theater was moved to the Johnson Wax Headquarters after the 1964 fair closed.[7][9]

Development

[edit]

In 1886, Samuel Curtis Johnson Sr. founded S. C. Johnson & Son in Racine, Wisconsin; the company started out as a manufacturer of parquet floors.[10][11][12] SC Johnson's business expanded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to include products such as wood finishes and floor wax.[10][13] By the 1910s, the company had expanded its business internationally[10] and no longer sold parquet floors.[13] The company continued to grow in the 1920s and 1930s.[14] By 1936, some of the company's executives worked in a wooden house and a series of annexes next to the company's existing factory and warehouse. SC Johnson's chief executive Herbert Fisk "Hibbert" Johnson Jr. initially wanted to expand the existing buildings before deciding on an entirely new campus.[15]

Design

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Matson design

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Hibbert visited The Hershey Company's headquarters in Hershey, Pennsylvania, to get inspiration for a new headquarters.[15] At the time, Hershey had just completed an air-conditioned office building, and SC Johnson's existing building lacked air conditioning, forcing the factory to close whenever temperatures exceeded 90 °F (32 °C).[16] Upon his return to Racine, Hibbert hired J. Mandor Matson to design an office building near SC Johnson's existing headquarters.[15][16] Matson had been acquainted with the Johnson family since 1924, when the family had hired him to redesign their home. Initially, he drew up plans to remodel an existing building on SC Johnson's headquarters, though the plans were later changed to call for a brand-new structures.[16]

SC Johnson bought land immediately to the east of its existing headquarters and razed the houses there.[15] Before designing the new building, Matson traveled to the Hershey headquarters, possible for inspiration. Matson's first proposal from 1935 called for a T-shaped building, with the stem of the T running south toward 16th Street.[16] The plans called for a Beaux-Arts structure with six niches, three on either side of a main entrance, that depicted the history of SC Johnson's wax products.[15][17] The initial drawings for the building lacked windows, since the Hershey building did not contain windows for the most part; a revised blueprint from 1936 did include windows.[16] Hibbert was unimpressed with the plans, as was SC Johnson's general manager Jack Ramsey, who said Matson's plan "isn't good enough, it's just another building".[16][18] Ramsey and SC Johnson's advertising manager, William Connolly, were also unable to suggest suitable revisions to Matson's plans.[18]

Wright commission

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Hibbert and Ramsey decided to expand their search for an architect. Hibbert gave Matson's drawings to his brother-in-law Jack Louis, an executive at the public-relations firm that handled advertisements for SC Johnson.[16][18] Louis's colleagues Melvin Brorby and E. Willis Jones reportedly described Matson's plans as "common" and uninspired, and they recommended another architect, who in turn recommended that Hibbert and Ramsey reach out to the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright.[18] Jones visited Wright's Taliesin studio in Spring Green, Wisconsin, in early July 1936 to discuss the proposal. He returned to Taliesin later the same month with Ramsey and Connolly.[19] As Jones later recalled, Wright had proposed a brand-new complex several miles west of Racine, with a planned community for office workers.[19] The plans were based on Wright's design for the offices of the Capital Journal in Salem, Oregon,[19][20] which included a series of mushroom–shaped columns and translucent walls.[20][21]

The day after Ramsey and Connolly's meeting with Wright, Hibbert went to Taliesin to talk with the architect.[22] Although the two men disagreed on nearly every personal matter,[22][23] Hibbert asked Wright to design a headquarters for S. C. Johnson & Son in Racine,[16][24]The architect promised that he could design a building costing $200,000, much less than what Matson was asking.[22] Wright promised that "the Johnson administration building is not going to be what you expect", to which Hibbert readily agreed.[22] Hibbert also wanted Wright to design a structure that would stimulate workers, rather than being merely satisfying.[25] Wright replaced Matson as the headquarters' architect in late July 1936, less than a month before construction was supposed to begin.[16][22] Hibbert's daughter Karen reported being elated that her father had decided to hire Wright.[26] Shortly afterward, Wright visited the site that SC Johnson had acquired in Racine. At the time, the site had a series of wood-frame houses, a few small stores, and a cinema.[26] The site of the new headquarters had been cleared by late August 1935.[27]

Wright tried to convince the company to relocate to the Racine suburbs,[28] as he wanted to incorporate his proposals for Broadacre City into the SC Johnson complex.[16][29] Ramsey and Connolly were vehemently against the idea, but Wright continued to promote it until his wife Olgivanna warned that SC Johnson might fire him, too.[28][29] Instead, Wright's team drew up plans at Taliesin for an administration building in Racine.[30][31] Two of Wright's apprentices, John Howe and William Wesley Peters, recalled that Wright rushed to draw his ideas but that he also focused on perfecting the building's geometry, particularly the grids of columns.[32] On August 9, 1936, ten days after he was hired, Wright went to Racine to show the plans to Hibbert and other SC Johnson officials.[33] Hibbert requested two changes to the plans, although he retained Wright's draft plan for the most part.[34] By the end of the month, Wright asked three apprentices to create a model of the building.[35]

Construction

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Initial work and delays

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Hibbert Johnson suggested that his good friend Ben Wiltscheck be hired as the building's general contractor. Wright, who was typically adversarial toward contractors, saw Wiltscheck as "good help for us in getting this building properly built".[33] At Wiltscheck's suggestion, Wright and Hibbert compared bricks from various factories in the Midwestern United States, and they discussed plans for the building's heating and air-conditioning systems.[36] By September 1936, preliminary work on the site had begun,[37] and Peters and Mendel Glickman finalized the building's structural details.[38] Apprentices at Taliesin created 18 to 20 drawings, many of which depicted the building's great workroom, a relatively simple space.[38] Concurrently, Wright's apprentice Robert Mosher had been overseeing the construction of Fallingwater, Edgar J. Kaufmann's country estate in Pennsylvania, when Wright forced Mosher to return to Wisconsin after a dispute involving reinforcing steel.[39][40] Mosher was instead appointed to oversee the construction of the SC Johnson administration building,[30][41] while Tafel took Mosher's place in Pennsylvania.[41][42]

After Hibbert returned from a company trip to Mexico in October 1936, he found that construction had stalled.[41] The Wisconsin Industrial Commission had refused to approve the plans, citing building-code violations, but ultimately approved most aspects of Wright's plans with few changes.[43] The commission continued to withhold approval of drawings for the building's columns;[43] in particular, inspectors felt that the columns were too thin to support the 12-short-ton (11-long-ton; 11 t) loads that had been indicated in Glickman's drawings.[44][45] In the meantime, work continued.[43] To provide space for a vehicle-waxing area and a squash court, SC Johnson bought a plot north of the administration building that November.[46]

Wiltscheck and Mosher worked in a nearby shack, while Wright visited a few times a month. Construction briefly stalled in late 1936 after Wright fell severely ill with pneumonia, rendering him unable to answer contractors' questions. In addition, fourteen footings had to be rebuilt to accommodate the weight of a planned footbridge and squash court.[47] Mosher returned to Pennsylvania in January 1937 to supervise Fallingwater, and Tafel was reinstated as the Johnson Administration Building's supervisor.[48][46] The same month, SC Johnson bought a parcel immediately northwest of the administration building, as Ramsey wanted to construct a truck-repair garage there.[46] Following negotiations with Wright, the architect agreed to expand the carport's roof above this new garage. The final plans for the administration building remained largely unchanged after that point.[49]

Structural tests and completion

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To assuage concerns about the columns' structural integrity, in June 1937, Wright built a test column and placed progressively heavier loads onto it.[50][51] The column was able to withstand a 60 short tons (54 long tons; 54 t) load before it collapsed.[44][50][51] The same month, Wiltscheck reported that construction was proceeding rapidly and that the building was half-completed.[52] By August 1937, some of the walls had reached the height of the the building's roof.[53]

Shorter dendriform columns in the carport
  • angled sheets of fiberglass and specially molded sheets of Plexiglas with painted dark lines to resemble the original joints in a trompe-l'œil when viewed from the ground.
  • Wright designed not only the building but its furniture. His chair design originally had only three legs, supposedly to encourage better posture (because one would have to keep both feet on the ground at all times to sit in it). However, the chair proved unstable, tipping very easily. Purportedly, Wright redesigned the chairs after Herbert Johnson asked him to sit in one, and he fell out of it. Johnson Wax has continued to use Wright's furniture.
Research Tower above the administration buildings, 2016

Usage

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Mid-20th century

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The building was completed in 1939, considerably over budget.[54] Work was completed at the end of March 1939, when workers began moving into their new offices.[55]

Research Tower expansion

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On November 6, 1947, a groundbreaking ceremony was hosted for the research tower, which was also designed by Wright.[56] The firm of Wiltscheck and Nelson—whose staff included Ben E. Wiltscheck, the administration building's general contractor—was hired to construct the research tower. The plans called for several buildings measuring two and three stories high, which would host various SC Johnson departments.[56]

Late 20th century

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After the original administration building was completed, the caulking between the pyrex glass tubes and the facade began to peel off, causing water to leak into the interior. The building continued to leak for several years before a sealant was applied.[57]

The Research Tower was shuttered in 1982 after S. C. Johnson moved its research facilities to Louis Laboratories.[58]

21st century

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In 2013, SC Johnson announced plans to open the Research Tower for public tours for the first time in the building's history.[59] An extensive 12-month restoration was completed. The tower was relit on December 21, 2013, to mark the winter solstice.[60] Tours of the Research Tower began on May 2, 2014.[61][62]

Administration building

[edit]

The Johnson Wax administration building was one of three major buildings that Frank Lloyd Wright designed in the 1930s; the other two were Fallingwater in Stewart Township, Pennsylvania, and Herbert Jacobs's first house in Madison, Wisconsin.[63] Similar to Wright's earlier Larkin Administration Building in Buffalo, New York, the Johnson Administration Building was intended to draw occupants' attention inward, rather than outward.[33][64] The historian Robert McCarter wrote that SC Johnson and the Larkin Company both had "enlightened management" who aimed to better their employees' lives, thus making Wright the ideal architect for the Johnson Administration Building.[23] Wright referred to the Larkin Building as the "masculine sire" to the Johnson Building, which he saw as more feminine due to its curves.[65]

Exterior

[edit]

The original building is designed in a variation of the streamlined Art Moderne style.[66][67] Wright, who felt that many modern–style buildings were "not really modern", devised plans for a low-lying, streamlined structure.[68] The facade is made of brick, tinted in a Cherokee red hue[66][67] and manufactured by the Streator Brick Company.[36] The bricks are alternately laid 5 or 8 inches (130 or 200 mm) apart, with blocks of cork placed between the bricks. Concrete was poured into the gaps between the bricks and cork, while steel rods and copper ties were added for reinforcement.[43]

For the most part, the building lacks windows and other openings.[29][68] The facade used 43 miles (69 km) of Pyrex glass tubes when it was built.[25] The Pyrex tubes wrap around the facade at two locations: approximately 6 feet (1.8 m) above the ground, and at the roofline.[66][67] The tubes are stacked atop each other and bound using wires.[25][69] The tubes distort natural light entering the building,[70] and since the building was equipped with an air-conditioning system from the outset, they were not designed to be opened.[68] The entrance faces SC Johnson's parking lot to the north,[68] away from 16th Street, which was more industrial in nature.[16] Surrounding the building to the east, south, and west is a 18.5-foot-wide (5.6 m) planting strip.[31] The building had no exits on these sides, as Wright had convinced the state's industrial commission that the structure was completely fireproof.[43]

The facade originally did not contain any public-facing signage, although a small sign was mounted on the northern elevation of the building's carport, facing the parking lot. Robert Mosher, who thought Wright would reject any suggestions for signage on the facade, reportedly told Hibbert and SC Johnson's board of directors that the building "is going to be such a contribution that you won't need any sign".[47]

Interior

[edit]

The administration building's interior consists of a great workroom, as well as offices on a mezzanine floor and in a penthouse.[66][67] For the most part, the building lacked hallways because Wright wanted people to circulate vertically between floors, rather than horizontally across a single floor. This also reduced the amount of unused "dead space" in the building.[68] The mezzanine and penthouse were accessed by a pair of elevators,[67] in addition to a pair of cylindrical staircase halls flanking the main lobby.[5][31] The interior primarily used concrete, though brick was also used in some portions of the interior.[38][68] Wright had initially wanted both the interior and the exterior to be covered in brick, but Hibbert Johnson felt that the material was incompatible with the interior design, which was instead arranged around a grid of columns.[38]

Two circular air shafts, extending the building's full height, provided ventilation to the building,[66][68] eliminating the need for air ducts on the building's roof.[52] The presence of the shafts led Wright to describe the great workroom as breathing through two "nostrils".[33][68] Air filters, compressors, and fans were installed at the bottom of each shaft.[37] Filtered air was distributed throughout the workrooms via a plenum chamber under the workroom's mezzanine.[5][37] The floor slab is made of concrete, with heating pipes embedded into it.[5] The foundation consists of reinforced concrete footers measuring 18.5 inches (470 mm) thick, beneath which is an 18-inch (460 mm) layer of crushed stone.[41]

Great workroom

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Great Workroom

The great workroom was designed as a 130-by-210-foot (40 by 64 m) space[a] with a 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling.[66][67] Its design was heavily based on that of Wright's Capital Journal headquarters in Oregon.[31] The great workroom received natural light from skylights and the facade's glass bands.[64][66] The rest of the room was illuminated by artificial lighting.[66][67] Wright had also wanted to cover the great workroom's floor with drain tiles, saying that the tiles could be more easily heated by boilers under the room; ultimately, SC Johnson used rubber tiles instead.[36] The great workroom's lobby, to the north, has columns measuring over 30 feet (9.1 m) tall.[5][73]

The great workroom is surrounded by a 17-foot-deep (5.2 m) mezzanine[31][5] with offices for departmental heads and junior executives.[66][68] The mezzanine-level offices are 14 feet (4.3 m) wide, extending past the outermost set of columns on each side of the great workroom. A corridor, outside the offices, protrudes 3 feet (0.91 m) inward from the outermost set of columns.[31] The idea for the mezzanine had come about because SC Johnson needed to install noisy machinery in a central location. Wright had recommended placing the machinery under the great workroom's south wall and adding offices above the machinery.[35]

The great workroom's ceiling is supported by 60 columns,[64][74][b] a number deliberately selected by Wright to avoid asymmetry.[31] Each column is spaced 20 feet (6.1 m) apart, dividing the great workroom into a grid.[5][31][76] At the bottom of each column is a footer with steel ribs.[70][73] The columns consist of 2-to-3-inch-thick (5.1 to 7.6 cm) concrete shells surrounding a hollow shaft;[70][77] each concrete shell has a steel mesh core for added strength.[51][76] The columns were made of ultra-high-strength Portland cement and could carry loads of up to 7,000 pounds per square inch (48,000 kPa), higher than what Wright had specified.[77][c] In contrast to typical buildings, the columns in the great workroom were narrower at their bases and wider at their tops.[51][76][73] The bottoms of each column measure 9 inches (23 cm) in diameter,[12][70] while the tops of the columns are about 1 foot 5 inches (0.43 m) wide.[51] The columns are cited as measuring 21 feet (6.4 m),[57][73] 21 feet 7+1⁄2 inches (6.591 m),[76] or 22 feet (6.7 m) tall.[12][d] The columns have sometimes been referred to as "lily pad" columns because of their shape.[64][76]

Above each column is a "calyx",[76][75] which measures 18.5 feet (222 in; 560 cm) in diameter.[70][75] Hollow pads with concrete rings and struts, which Wright referred to as "petals", stand atop each of the calyxes. There are circular concrete slabs above each of the petals, as well as above the lobby columns.[73] The roof above the workroom is composed of small beams, which connect the petals, thereby forming a rigid frame.[75][78] There are skylights in the spaces between the calyxes.[76] Because there is nothing above much of the great workroom, most of the columns had to support only the weight of a 20-by-20-foot (6.1 by 6.1 m) section of roof, plus any snow that accumulated on the roof.[77][78]

[edit]

The great workroom is separated from the building's carport at ground level. The two spaces are connected by an overpass at the second and third stories.[65] The theater, located on the second story of the overpass, contains a projection booth and a dining–kitchen area to the north, as well as a podium to the south.[34] Like the great workroom, the interior of the carport is placed on a grid of columns spaced 20 feet apart.[3][31] The carport columns are shorter versions of the columns that appear in the great workroom,[3] measuring only 8.5 feet (2.6 m) tall.[5] North of the carport was a squash court with a garage for maintenance vehicles under it.[35]

The building's basement had service spaces such as lockers, restrooms, and rest areas,[66][68] which were accessed via circular stairs.[5] Senior executives and SC Johnson officers worked in the penthouse.[66][68] The penthouse consists of two wings connected by a central conference room: one wing for SC Johnson's operations division, and one for the advertising and media division. Hibbert Johnson's office was located between the wings, to the north of the conference room.[35]

  • The Johnson Wax Headquarters were in an industrial zone, and In a break with his earlier Prairie School structures, the building features many curvilinear forms and required over 200 different curved "Racine Red" bricks to create the sweeping curves of the interior and exterior. The mortar between the bricks is raked in traditional Wright style to accentuate the horizontality of the building. The warm, reddish hue of the bricks was used in the polished concrete floor slab as well; the white stone trim and white dendriform (tree-like) columns create a subtle yet striking contrast. All of the furniture, manufactured by Steelcase, was designed for the building by Wright and it echoed many of the building's design features.
  • The entrance is within the structure, penetrating the building on one side with a covered carport on the other. The low carport ceiling creates a compression of space that is released when entering the main building, where the dendriform columns rise over two stories tall; the interior space thus appears larger than it is. Compression and release of space were concepts that Wright used in many of his designs, including the playroom in his Oak Park Home and Studio, the Unity Temple in Oak Park, Illinois, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City, and many others.
  • Throughout the Great Workroom, which has no internal walls, the thin, white dendriform columns rise to circular "lily pad" tops that form the ceiling, with the spaces between the circles consisting of skylights made of Pyrex glass tubing. At the corners, where the walls usually meet the ceiling, the glass tubes continue up and over and connect to the skylights, creating a clerestory effect and admitting a soft light. The Great Workroom is the largest expanse of space in the building, and was intended for the secretaries of the Johnson Wax company, with a mezzanine for administrators.

Research Tower

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The Research Tower is 15 stories tall.[56][79] The building measures 156 feet (48 m) from the ground to the roof.[56][80] It was Racine's tallest building at the time of construction, beating out the 11-story Racine County Courthouse by approximately 6.5 inches (170 mm).[56] The Research Tower weighs 16 million pounds (7,300,000 kg).[58][79] Each of the above-ground stories is cantilevered from a core measuring 13 feet (4.0 m) across and extending 54 feet (16 m) below ground.[58] Utilities such as the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning are embedded into the core.[56]

There are seven square-shaped full stories and seven circular mezzanines;[56][79] the second floor, which is square, has no mezzanine.[58] Each of the mezzanines measures 38 feet (12 m) in diameter, while the full stories measure 40 by 40 feet (12 by 12 m) across.[56]

  • Cantilevered from a giant stack, the tower's floor slabs spread out like tree branches, providing for vertical segmentation of departments. Elevator and stairway channels run up the reinforced concrete core, which Wright called a tap root. This single core was based on an idea that he had proposed in 1929 for the St. Mark's Tower,[81] and which he used again in 1952 in the Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Freed from peripheral supporting elements, the tower rises from a garden and three fountain pools that surround its base while a court on three sides provides parking for employees.[54]
  • The Research Tower no longer met fire safety codes by the 1980s. It only has a single 29-inch wide twisting staircase,[58] and originally had no sprinklers because Wright thought they were ugly. SC Johnson considered proposals to retrofit the tower to meet these codes, including one submitted by apprentices from Taliesin, but all were ultimately rejected out of concern it would mar the appearance of the tower.[3][54]

There are public tours of the Research Tower.[60] Research labs shown on the tour have been set up to appear frozen in time, including beakers, scales, centrifuges, archival photographs and letters about the building.[54][82]

Impact

[edit]

The administration building had received large amounts of publicity soon after construction began.[41][83] The administration building's design also prompted Hibbert to ask Wright to design the Wingspread mansion outside of Racine.[84][41] The historian Franklin Toker wrote that the Johnson Administration Building had been particularly important to Wright because the architect did not want to be known primarily as a designer of houses.[85]

Critical reception

[edit]

When the administration building was under construction, The Christian Science Monitor described it as a "complete about-face from the skyscraper", citing its streamlined, low-to-the-ground design.[25] The design also led The Journal Times to characterize the structure as an entirely new type of office building.[68] The editor of the Architectural Review, in a conversation with Ben Wiltscheck, regarded the administration building as "a progressive landmark in office building architecture".[86] One publication described the tapering concrete columns in the building as having a "fairy-like slenderness",[87] while the Kenosha News likened the columns to ice cream cones.[45] The historian Kenneth Frampton theorized that the building's windowless design may have come about because Wright had trouble incorporating his designs into urban settings.[29] Another writer, Robert McCarter, suggests that the building would have been constructed without windows regardless of where it was built.[88]

In a 2000 book about American architecture, the writer Carter Wiseman compared the interior of the great workroom to "a dense but sheltering forest" because of the presence of the columns.[57]

Landmark designations

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The Johnson Wax buildings are on the National Register of Historic Places, and the Administration Building and the Research Tower were chosen by the American Institute of Architects as two of seventeen buildings by the architect to be retained as examples of his contribution to American culture. In addition, in 1974 the Administration Building was awarded a Twenty-Five Year Award by the American Institute of Architects and in 1976, both were designated National Historic Landmarks.[2][89]

See also

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References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ McCarter 1997, p. 283, gives different dimensions of 120 by 200 feet (37 by 61 m).
  2. ^ When the building was being designed, news sources reported that Wright had drawn up plans for 82[75] or 86 columns.[52]
  3. ^ The concrete in the petals and calyxes was rated at 4,000 pounds per square inch (28,000 kPa), while the concrete in the shafts was rated at 6,000 pounds per square inch (41,000 kPa).[70][77]
  4. ^ ArchDaily gives a differing figure of 30 feet (9.1 m).[72]

Citations

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  1. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 15, 2006.
  2. ^ a b c "Administration and Research Tower, S.C. Johnson Company". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on April 3, 2009. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  3. ^ a b c d Hertzberg, Mark (2010). Frank Lloyd Wright's SC Johnson Research Tower. Rohnert Park: Pomegranate. ISBN 978-0-7649-5609-6.
  4. ^ "Johnson, S.C., and Son Administration Building and Research Tower". Wisconsin Historical Society. January 2012. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i McCarter 1997, p. 283.
  6. ^ Huhti, T. (2017). Moon Wisconsin. Travel Guide. Avalon Publishing. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-63121-430-1. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  7. ^ a b Roberts, Lee B. (May 16, 2024). "Golden Rondelle Theater Is an Architectural Gem". Journal Times. Retrieved May 23, 2024.
  8. ^ "Giant Disk Due at Fair In New York". The Christian Science Monitor. October 18, 1962. p. 15. ISSN 0882-7729. ProQuest 510362297.
  9. ^ Samuel, Lawrence R. (August 30, 2007). The End of the Innocence: The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair (1st ed.). Syracuse University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-8156-0890-5.
  10. ^ a b c Pfankuchen, David (September 21, 1986). "Parquet floors launched firm". The Journal Times. p. 60. Retrieved December 24, 2024.
  11. ^ Louis, Jr. V. United States of America. United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. 1966. p. 5. Retrieved December 24, 2024.
  12. ^ a b c National Park Service 1976, p. 3.
  13. ^ a b Lipman 1986, p. 6.
  14. ^ Lipman 1986, p. 7.
  15. ^ a b c d e Lipman 1986, p. 1.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Hertzberg, Mark (May 12, 2002). "Two men, two visions". Journal Times. pp. 1A, 9A. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  17. ^ Kimmelman, Michael (July 10, 1986). "Buildings by Wright". The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. 47. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  18. ^ a b c d Lipman 1986, p. 3.
  19. ^ a b c Lipman 1986, p. 9.
  20. ^ a b McCarter 1997, pp. 277–278.
  21. ^ Lipman 1986, p. 10.
  22. ^ a b c d e Lipman 1986, p. 13.
  23. ^ a b McCarter 1997, p. 277.
  24. ^ Lipman 1986, p. 12.
  25. ^ a b c d "Offices Built to 'Inspire," Streamlined and Windowless: Pyrex 'Eaves' Light Interior Flowered With Pillars". The Christian Science Monitor. September 8, 1939. p. 2. ISSN 0882-7729. ProQuest 515285988.
  26. ^ a b Lipman 1986, p. 14.
  27. ^ Reynolds, Tex (August 28, 1936). "On the Sidewalks of Racine". The Journal Times. p. 20. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  28. ^ a b Lipman 1986, pp. 14–15.
  29. ^ a b c d McCarter 1997, p. 278.
  30. ^ a b "Spring Green News Notes". Baraboo News Republic. November 13, 1936. p. 3. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lipman 1986, p. 17.
  32. ^ Lipman 1986, p. 25.
  33. ^ a b c d Lipman 1986, p. 32.
  34. ^ a b Lipman 1986, p. 33.
  35. ^ a b c d Lipman 1986, p. 37.
  36. ^ a b c Lipman 1986, p. 38.
  37. ^ a b c Lipman 1986, p. 39.
  38. ^ a b c d Lipman 1986, p. 43.
  39. ^ Hoffmann, Donald (1977). Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater: The House and Its History (1st ed.). Dover Publications. p. 39. ISBN 0-486-27430-6.
  40. ^ Toker 2003, p. 218.
  41. ^ a b c d e f Lipman 1986, p. 45.
  42. ^ Toker 2003, p. 220.
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