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Self-Categorisation in Children

Self-Categorisation Theory is the concept that explains how an individual will conceptualises themselves as both an individual and as a group member (Turner & Reynolds 2012). The theory is concerned with how and when individuals attempt to define themselves (Turner & Reynolds 2012) to see how groups are formed.

A group is defined as a collection of individuals (American Psychological Association 2018), and social psychologists build upon this to define it as individuals who influence each other (American Psychological Association 2018). These groups can be both large and small scale, and include things such as states, political groups or individuals with shared interests (Sindic & Condor 2012).

This theory of self-categorisation is linked to Social Identity Theory. This is a theory developed by Tajfel and Turner which suggests that behaviour between groups is effected by behaviour within groups (Hogg 2016).

The concept of Social Identity Theory by Tajfel and Turner

This form of categorisation is especially present in children (Owen, Barnes, Hunt & Sheffield 2023). Children impulsively categorise the world around them in an attempt to understand behaviours (Gelman & Meyer 2010). Children also develop an understanding of self at a young age (Brownell, Zerwas & Ramani 2007) and so will attempt to categorise themselves.

This process allows for children to efficiently store information as well as allowing them to make inferences in to guide their behaviour (Gelman & Meyer 2010). Younger children have more limited cognitive abilities compared to adults and so they will need to have these methods of simplification to allow for them to understand the world (Gualtieri & Finn 2022).

Theories and Research

Models

There are two key models when considering self-categorisation in children. They are associative learning models and theory-based models (Gelman & Meyer 2010).

Associative Learning Models

These theories suggest that the categories that are formed are due to the sensory and perceptual experiences (Gelman & Meyer 2010), children take in vast amount of this information and use it to learn about the world around them (Gelman 2009). Children are able to collect large amounts of data and with this data they form links and correlations in order to label the world (Gelman & Meyer 2010).

Theory Based Models

These theories suggest that a child's ability to separate items into categories is determined by factors that go beyond the observable world (Gelman & Meyer 2010). Any categories that are formed because of observable features are quickly overwritten when the function of an object is made clear (Gelman & Meyer 2010). It is also thought that these categories are affected by the classification of the object (Gelman & Meyer 2010).

Psychological Essentialism

Psychological essentialism is a theory used to try to understand a child's use of non-observable features to categorise the world (Gelman & Meyer 2010). It suggests that children believe that categories are real, unchanging, a human construct and based on deeper hidden qualities (Gelman & Meyer 2010). These hidden qualities are not always salient but act as an expectation on how a category is structured (Gelman & Meyer 2010).

Existing Research

Influence of Additional Information

When children are sorting items into categories, their judgements on similarity are influenced by the function of an object (Smith, Jones & Landau 1996). However, they are not influenced by information given about an objects function, instead they were influenced by the child becoming aware of the base concept or any individual parts of the item (Smith, Jones & Landau 1996). This suggests that unlike adults, children are only influenced by their understanding of how something is constructed.

Children Looking Beyond

Evidence may suggest that children are able to 'look beyond' any obvious information when forming categories (Gelman 2003). This is in support of the essentialist view of self-categorisation. In the origins of the understanding of childhood development, researchers such as Piaget developed theories suggesting that children lacked intelligence and so do not understand the world (Huitt & Hummel 2003). However more modern understandings argue that children have a greater cognitive competence than what Piaget suggested (Gelman 2003).

Impact of Life Factors

Race

Attention to the race of an individual appears in infancy (Waxman 2021). Children are going to therefore use this as a factor in their categorisation of the world. Children will look to those who match their race (Waxman 2021) showing that they have a clear understanding of their own race and the group that puts them in. As a child gets older, they will begin to understand and mimic the attitudes that they have categorised to be part of that race (Foster-Carter 1987). However, the traits they apply to these categories are not always correct. When children begin to categorise themselves by race, it is often done before they have a deeper understanding of what those traits mean (Foster-Carter 1987). This would mean that a child will just be copying the stereotypes of adults (Forster-Carter 1987). This is a possible explanation for the perpetuation of stereotypes as a child will therefore copy and perpetuate any biases that are held by their parents.

Gender

Children are rasied differently depending on race, gender and culture

The development of an understanding of gender roles occurs early in a child's life (Morawska 2020). Therefore, it is probable that this would have an impact on their self-categorisation. A child's understanding of their own gender is developed by the imitation of the adults around them (Morawska 2020), therefore this another explanation for the perpetuation of stereotypes or biases that a parent may possess. The developing view that gender is no longer a binary decision introduces more options with self-categorisation. Recently it is become more acknowledged that gender can be viewed along a continuum (Eisend & Rößner 2022), and so this means the lines between categorises could become blurred. This may make it harder for younger children to define themselves. Conversely, this may open up the options for a child to feel as though they belong. A child who doesn't fit the stereotypical binary understanding of gender will be able to observe and therefore categorise themselves as something else, allowing for better quality of life.

Family

Every family has a unique approach to raising children based on culture and their morals (Sanvictores & Mendez 2021), which would suggest that family would have an impact on a child's understanding of categories and therefore, how they self-categorise themselves. A child's parents are a large determiner of the environment they group up in (Hannigan, McAdams, Plomin & ELey 2016). This will influence the categories you develop as children look to the environment around them (Gelman & Meyer 2010). This means that a child's self-categorisation will partially be determined by their parents. It has been shown that a child's self-report in a self-view questionnaire is impacted by their interactions with their parents (Brown et al 2009). However, this is not the only factor to consider. The family environment only determines one aspect of a child's self-view. There are other influences such as the child's temperament (Brown et al 2009). This means that whilst family will impact how a child categorises themselves it is not a complete explanation and so is not deterministic.

Measurement

Due to the difficulties in measuring unobservable characteristics in children with self-report measures (Black, Mansfield & Panayoitou 2020) there is a constant need for new ways of measurement. Children may lack the vocabulary to express their internal thoughts (Aldridge & Wood 1997). They may also lack the social skills required to express their thoughts (Bell 2007). A child does however possess a theory of mind from an early age (Astington & Jenkins 1995). This suggests they have the ability to understand the mental states of others which would help with self-report.

A Theory of Mind allows a chidl to understand what others are thinking

One method to assist children in using self-report methods to measure internal models such as self-categorisation, is to have the assistance of adults (Kooijmans, Langdon & Moonen 2022). It has been found that the use of adults may allow children to be able to more accurately communicate their internal processes (Kooijmans, Langdon & Moonen 2022). However, this method does create potential areas of bias. All self-report measures have a large amount of variance due to response biases (Kooijmans, Langdon & Moonen 2022). Response bias can involve purposeful deceit such as withholding information or the effect of social desirability bias, or it can be unconscious where information is unknowingly withheld such as biases due to gender or age (Martelli, Nicholson, Zasler & Bender 2012).

Another method to assist in self-report methods in children is to combine them with proxy, parental or professional reports (Greco, Lambert & Park 2016). These will often differ from a child's self-report (Greco, Lambert & Park 2016). This means that they can be used to look for inconsistencies that need further examination. These traits can then be assessed to help get a better understanding. It has been shown that a child's self-concept is shaped by those around them (Hannigan, McAdams, Plomin & ELey 2016)(Gelman & Meyer 2010) and so it is likely that inconsistencies in parental reports are more likely to be due to response biases.

Concepts

Levels of Self Categorisation

Social categorisation theory has three levels: the interpersonal level; the intergroup level and the superordinate level (Yao 2020). The interpersonal level refers to the fact that an individual is uniquely different to those around them (Yao 2020). The intergroup level refers to individuals viewing themselves as part of a social group (Yao 2020). The superordinate level refers to when an individual categorises themselves as a member of a larger social group (Yao 2020).

In children these may not all be present. Children may be unable to categorise themselves at the superordinate level due to their lack of understanding of the world. Children may lack knowledge about larger communities (Hannust & Kikas 2010). This means that they will not be able to categories themselves as part of these larger communities suggesting that the process of self-categorisation in children cannot be completed at a young age and must wait on the child to mature and develop knowledge of the world.

Stereotyping

An example of male stereotypedd behaviours that a child may learn to express

Self-categorisation also involves the process of self-stereotyping (Yao 2020). This allows individuals to conform more to group norms, reducing salient differences and therefore making the category one identifies as belonging to clearer (Yao 2020).

In children, stereotypes can occur at an early age. A child's gender stereotypes are set from the age of five (Tarhan 2022). These then affect how a child categorises themselves, which then has implications for the behaviour they are likely to show later in life. Children learn that the category that they belong to has rules about how they should behave which will impact their behaviour (Yao 2020).

Social Influence

This is where the individual recognises the similarities between themselves and other group members (Yao 2020). They are then expected to converge on accepted ideology and form an ingroup, categorising others as an outgroup (Yao 2020).

This can be seen in children through inclusion in play. Children are willing to accept other children into their play even if they differ by factors such as race or gender (Wainman et al 2012). This affect still remains even when there is an authority or ingroup member suggesting otherwise (Wainman et al 2012). This could suggest that once an ingroup is formed young children's beliefs about them are solidified and cannot be altered by external forces, including those from the outgroup.

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