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Hatti Kizzuwatna Alalah Mittani Egypt
(Pariyawatri)
Telipinu Išpudaḫšu
Taḫurwaili Eḫeya Šuttarna/Saitarna
? Paddatiššu Thutmosis III
Zidanza II Pilliya Idrimi Parsatatar/ Baratarna
Tudḫaliya I Sunaššura Niqmepa Sauštatar Thutmosis III
Ilimilimma Artadama I Amenhotep II
Kantuzili (the priest) Šuttarna II Thutmosis IV
Suppiluliuma I Telipinu (the priest) Tušratta Amenhotep III/IV



Hatti Kizzuwatna Alalah Mittani Egypt
(Pariyawatri)
Telipinu Išpudaḫšu
Taḫurwaili Eḫeya Šuttarna/Saitarna
? Paddatiššu Thutmosis III
Zidanza II Pilliya Idrimi Parsatatar/ Baratarna
Tudḫaliya I Sunaššura Niqmepa Sauštatar Thutmosis III
Ilimilimma Artadama I Amenhotep II
Kantuzili (the priest) Šuttarna II Thutmosis IV
Suppiluliuma I Telipinu (the priest) Tušratta Amenhotep III/IV


Approximate extension of Kuzzuwatna kingdom (in pink)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_Mountains#Central_Taurus

Taurus_Mountains#Central_Taurus

Relief of a portion of Western and Central Taurus Mountains


Relief of Western, Central, and Eastern Taurus Mountains

Nikitin, Alexey G.; et al. (October 3, 2022). "New Radiocarbon Dating and Stable Isotope Analysis of Human Remains from the Usatovo Culture Site of Mayaki in Ukraine". SSRN. Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.4236123.


[1]




[2]

[3]


Knodell, Alex R. (2021). Societies in Transition in Early Greece: An Archaeological History. Oakland: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-5203-8053-0.


The concept of inconceivable difference in non-difference, known as achintya-bhedabheda, attributed to Chaitanya, was developed by Jiva Gosvami in his book Bhagavat Sandharbha.[4]

Dasa, Satyanarayana (2007). "The Six Sandharbhas of Jiva Gosvami". Krishna: A Sourcebook (PDF). pp. 373–408. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6.



[5]


Delmonico, Neal (2007). "Chaitanya Vaishnavism". Krishna: A Sourcebook (PDF). pp. 549–575. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6.


[6]


Lubin, Timothy (2024). "Sources of Authority: Authors, Texts, and Institutions in the Formation of Classical Hinduism". A Cultural History of Hinduism in the Classical Age. pp. 21–44. doi:10.5040/9781350024311.0007. 

Bloomsbury Academic

Mannack, Thomas (2013). "Greek Decorated Pottery I: Athenian Vase-painting". In Smith, Tyler Jo; Plantzos, Dimitris (eds.). A Companion to Greek Art. pp. 39–61. doi:10.1002/9781118273289. ISBN 978-1-4051-8604-9.


[7]

[8]

[9]


Gupta, Vinay Kumar (May 2023). "Vrsnis in Ancient Art and Literature: An Addendum". VESTIGIA INDICA: BSSS Journal of History & Archaeology. 1 (1): 184–235.



[10]

Blintliff (2012), p. 221

Bintliff, John (2012). The Complete Archaeology of Greece: From Hunter-Gatherers to the 20th Century AD, First Edition. pp. 207–233. doi:10.1002/9781118255179. ISBN 9781405154185.

Bintliff, John (2012). "The Greek Early Iron Age and the Concept of a 'Dark Age'". The Complete Archaeology of Greece: From Hunter-Gatherers to the 20th Century AD, First Edition. pp. 207–233. doi:10.1002/9781118255179. ISBN 9781405154185.

Mannack, Thomas (2013). "Greek Decorated Pottery I: Athenian Vase-painting". In Smith, Tyler Jo; Plantzos, Dimitris (eds.). A Companion to Greek Art. pp. 39–61. doi:10.1002/9781118273289. ISBN 978-1-4051-8604-9.


Knapp, A. Bernard (November 23, 2022). "Bronze Age Cyprus and the Aegean: 'exotic currency' and objects of connectivity". Journal of Greek Archaeology (7): 69–93. doi:10.32028/jga.v7i.1711.

Journal of Greek Archaeology 7 (2022): 67–93

Martin, Thomas R., (October 3, 2019). "The Dark Ages of Ancient Greece": "...The Near East recovered its strength much sooner than did Greece, ending its Dark Age by around 900 B.C...The end of the Greek Dark Age is traditionally placed some 150 years after that, at about 750 B.C..." Retrieved October 24, 2020


Martin, Thomas R. (October 3, 2019). "The Dark Ages of Ancient Greece". Brewminate. ...The Near East recovered its strength much sooner than did Greece, ending its Dark Age by around 900 B.C...The end of the Greek Dark Age is traditionally placed some 150 years after that, at about 750 B.C...

{{cite web}}: Empty citation (help)


"British Library Collection, Manuscript CKM 2". Pokhala[di] pushi ? + (Verso 20).


The Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200-800 BC), were earlier regarded as two continuous periods of Greek history: The first the Postpalatial Bronze Age (c. 1200-1050 BC).[11], the second currently known as Prehistoric Iron Age or Early Iron Age (c. 1050-800 BC), which included all the ceramic periods from the Protogeometric to the Middle Geometric I,[11] lasting until the beginning of the Protohistoric Iron Age around 800 BC.[12][13] Currently, the term Greek Dark Ages is being abandoned, and both periods are not considered "obscure."






Achaeans


Mannack, Thomas (2013). "Greek Decorated Pottery I: Athenian Vase-painting". In Smith, Tyler Jo; Plantzos, Dimitris (eds.). A Companion to Greek Art. pp. 39–61. doi:10.1002/9781118273289. ISBN 978-1-4051-8604-9.

Mannack, Thomas (2013). "Greek Decorated Pottery I: Athenian Vase-painting". In Smith, Tyler Jo; Plantzos, Dimitris (eds.). A Companion to Greek Art. pp. 39–61. doi:10.1002/9781118273289. ISBN 978-1-4051-8604-9.


https://books.google.com.bo/books?id=7q1LDrb9btkC&pg=RA1-PA3&hl=es&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false

Izzet, Vedia (2004). "Purloined letters: The Aristonothos Inscription and Krater". Greek Identity in the Western Mediterranean. Brill. pp. 191–210. doi:10.1163/9789047402664_010. ISBN 9789047402664.

Mnemosyne, Supplements, Volume: 246


Langdon, Susan (2010). "Geometric and Protogeometric Art". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. pp. 286–290. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6.




Goldman, Robert P.; Sutherland Goldman, Sally J. (2022). The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: The Complete English Translation. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780691206868.

Alagich, Rudolf; Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Miller, Margaret C.; Trantalidou, Katerina; Smith, Colin (26 February 2024). "Mediterranean Early Iron Age chronology: assessing radiocarbon dates from a stratified Geometric period deposit at Zagora (Andros), Greece". Antiquity. First View: 167–172. doi:10.15184/aqy.2024.16.


Allentoft, Morten E.; et al. (June 11, 2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. 522 (7555). Nature Research: 167–172. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103.


[14]

[15]


[16]


[17]

[18]


VII.59 (575) Maruts (1–11), Rudra (12)

[19] 


    {{cite web}}: Empty citation (help)


[20]

[21]



Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. pp. 953–954. ISBN 9780199370184. one two three.



[22]


Sahu, Sandeep (2008-02-18). "Ancient city discovered in India". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-02-19.



[23]




Khabur ware

Mitanni

[edit]
Upper Mesopotamia Region, within the Middle East.

The "Dark Age" concept was applied to the archaeological gap between the Middle and Late Bronze Age on Northern Mesopotamian sites, but Costanza Coppini considers it a "transition" instead, which can be called "Late Bronze Age 0," attested from the Tell Leilan's end caused by Samsu-iluna during his 23rd year of reign, c. 1728 BCE [Middle Chronology], to Mitanni's predominance [c. 1600-1550 BCE], "since there are elements of the older traditions and elements of a new tradition that developed further in the LBA I (or [Mitanni]] in historical terms)," just like the emergence of the third phase of Khabur Ware.[24]

Jazira region in green.

The rest

[edit]

[25]

Powell, W.; et al. (December 20, 2023). "Tin isotopes reveal changing patterns of tin trade, connectivity and consumption from Anatolia and Central Asia at Kültepe". Journal of Archaeological Science. 162: 105917. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2023.105917.


Subsequent excavations attested the following stratigraphy of Kültepe:[26]

Mound Level Lower Town Level Period Name, Importance
18 — Early Bronze Age I  
17–14 — Early Bronze Age II  
13–11 — Early Bronze Age III  
10 IV Middle Bronze Age Beginning of urban development
9 III Middle Bronze Age  
8 II kārum-period
1974/1927–1836 BCE		 Kaniš; Anatolian center of Assyrian trade
7 Ib kārum-period
1832/1800–1719 BCE		 Kaniš; Assyrian trading center
6 Ia Old Hittite period Neša; the place no longer has a central function
Settlement gap



Stratigraphy of Kültepe
Mound Level Lower Town Level Period Name, Importance
18 — Early Bronze Age I  
17–14 — Early Bronze Age II  
13–11 — Early Bronze Age III  
10 IV Middle Bronze Age Beginning of urban development
9 III Middle Bronze Age  
8 II kārum-period
1974/1927–1836 BCE		 Kaniš; Anatolian center of Assyrian trade
7 Ib kārum-period
1832/1800–1719 BCE		 Kaniš; Assyrian trading center
6 Ia Old Hittite period Neša; the place no longer has a central function
Settlement gap
5–4 — Iron Age
9/8 century BC		 important central location in the late Luwian country Tabal
Settlement gap
3 Graves Hellenistic Age Anisa; Polis; Coin finds from 323 BC
2–1 Graves Roman Age insignificant settlement; Coin finds up to 180 AD

In addition, some early medieval graves were found in the lower town area. Settlement structures from this era are still missing.[27]





[28]


Chernykh, Evgenii N. (2009). "Formation of the Eurasian Steppe Belt Cultures: Viewed through the Lens of Archaeometallurgy and Radiocarbon Dating". In Hanks, Bryan K.; Linduff, Katheryn M. (eds.). Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–145. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511605376.009. ISBN 978-0-511-60537-6.


[29]



Allentoft et al. 2015 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAllentoftSikoraSjögrenRasmussen2015 (help)


Allentoft, Morten E.; et al. (June 11, 2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. 522 (7555). Nature Research: 167–172. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103.

Sjögren, Karl G.


Saag et al. (2021)


Saag, Lehti; et al. (2021). "Genetic ancestry changes in Stone to Bronze Age transition in the East European plain". Science Advances. 7 (4). doi:10.1126/sciadv.abd6535. PMC 7817100. PMID 33523926.




Blöcher, Jens; et al. (August 21, 2023). "Descent, marriage, and residence practices of a 3,800-year-old pastoral community in Central Eurasia". PNAS. 120 (36): 2303574120. doi:10.1073/pnas.2303574120.




Narasimhan, 2019 & etal analyzed the remains of several individuals associated with the Sintashta culture. mtDNA was extracted from two females buried at the Petrovka settlement.



Megiddo's Stratum VIIB lasted until slightly before or in the reign of Ramesses III (c. 1184-1143 BCE), as Egypt's control of this Canaanite region ended around 1140 BCE, and the beginning of Philistine Bichrome pottery at Megiddo was after 1124 BCE, or in the period (c. 1128-1079 BCE). These dates are based on radiocarbon dating with a confidence of 95.4%.[30]



Feldman, Liane M. (April 2023). The Consuming Fire: The Complete Priestly Source, from Creation to the Promised Land. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520383654.



"[The Priestly Source] beginns with [the narrative of] the creation of the world and [ends] at the edge of the Promised Land, telling the story of Israel people and their relationship with their god, Yahweh." [31]


The narrative of P texts has achieved a certain consensus among scholars, as the various reconstructions from Genesis to Exodus are 97% similar, (E.g. Jenson 1992, Knohl 2007, Römer 2014, and Faust 2019).[32] Recently Axel Buhler et al. (2023), in order to apply an algorithm, considered the 'priestly base text' (Pg: Priesterliche Grundschrift), as running, though not continually, from Genesis 1 to Exodus 40, and "characterized by an inclusive monotheism, with the deity gradually revealing itself to humanity and to the people of Israel in particular,"[33] beginning in Genesis 1-11, where God is called Elohim,[34] and ending "with the construction of the tent of meeting (Exodus 25–31*; 35–40*)," reflecting, along with cult, "a progressive revelation of YHWH," in a text dated to the early Persian period (end of 6th century or beginning of 5th century BCE), as the rites highlighted there, circumcision and Sabbath, do not need a temple, and due to its "universalist, monotheistic and peaceful vision."[35][36] Buhler et al. (2023) also concluded that P texts correspond to around 20% of the text in Genesis (292/1533 verses), 50% of that in Exodus (596/1213 verses), and 33% of the total (888/2746 verses).[37]





The Sintashta culture (Russian: Синташтинская культура, romanized: Sintashtinskaya kul'tura) is a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture of the Southern Urals, dated to the period c. 2200–1900 BCE. [38]

[39]Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).



...formed within this region or a nearby zone c. 3,200 BCE.[40]



Greek: Μαγεδών/Μαγεδδώ, Magedón/Mageddó in the Septuagint;[41][42][43] Latin: Mageddo in the Vulgate.[44]


ἦλθον αὐτῶν βασιλεῖς, παρετάξαντο, τότε ἐπολέμησαν βασιλεῖς Χαναὰν ἐν Θαναὰχ ἐπὶ ὕδατι Μαγεδδώ (ílthon aftón vasileís, paretáxanto, tóte epolémisan vasileís Chanaán en Thanaách epí ýdati Mageddó)(Their kings came, they lined up, then the kings of Canaan fought in Thanaach on the waters of Mageddo).




The kingdom was ruled by the Omride dynasty in the 9th century BCE, whose political center was the city of Samaria, where a lavish palace existed.[45]


| capital =

| capital =


H1a


The Gandhara grave culture is known by its Protohistoric Graves, and was an Indo-Aryan culture which emerged c.1200 BCE,[46] and lasted until 800 BCE,[47] as recent fieldwork, along with subsequent analyses, have shown there are no burials with these features after 800 BCE.[48] It is found in Middle Swat River course, and considered to be expanded to the Valleys of Dir, Kunar, Chitral, and Peshawar.[49] It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations, but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Estimates, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat people mixed with a population coming from the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor, which carried Steppe ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE.[50]


The Gandhara grave culture is known by its Protohistoric Graves, which were spread mainly in middle Swat valley and known there as Swat Protohistoric Graveyards Complex, dated in that region c. 1200-800 BCE,[51] Italian mission there regards there are no burials with these features after 800 BCE.[52] Recent research by Pakistani scholars, like Muhammad Zahir, consider these Protohistoric Graves to have extended over a much wider geography and to have continued in existence from 8th century BCE until Historic period.[53] Core region is found in Middle Swat River course, and considered to be expanded to the Valleys of Dir, Kunar, Chitral, and Peshawar.[54] It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations, but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Estimates, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat people mixed with a population coming from the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor, which carried Steppe ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE.[55]







Period Dating Settlement size Phase
IA 3550-3350 BC 10.5–15.5 ha[56]: 882  10-9
IB 3350-3100 BC 8
IC 3100-3000 BC 7
IIA 3000–2850 BC 80 ha[57]: 21  6A-B
IIB 2850-2620 BC 5A-B
IIC 2620-2600 BC 4
IIIA 2600–2450 BC 80 ha 3
IIIB 2450-2400 BC 2
IV 2400–2300 BC 1
GAP 2300-2100 BC
V 2100–2000 BC 0

Chronological and stratigraphical sequence in the later excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta (Ascalone 2022: 152, Fig. 10).

Ascalone, Enrico, (2022). "Preliminary Report on the 2018-2019 Excavations in Area 33 at Shahr-i Sokhta", in: Enrico Ascalone and Seyyed Mansur Seyyed Sajjadi (eds.), Excavations and Researches at Shahr-i Sokhta 3, Tehran, pp. 143-232, (See p. 152, Fig. 10).


Period Dating Settlement size Phase
I 3550[58]–2800 BC 10.5–15.5 ha[56]: 882  10-8
II 2800–2600 BC 80 ha[57]: 21  7-5B
III 2600–2450 BC 80 ha 4-3
IV 2450–2350 BC 2-1
V 2100–2000 BC 0



[59]



The Sintashta culture (Russian: Синташтинская культура, romanized: Sintashtinskaya kul'tura), around 2200–1900 BCE, is a late Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture,[60][61] located to the east and west of the Southern Urals, within the northern Eurasian steppe on the borders of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. It is the first phase of the Sintashta–Petrovka complex,[61][62] c. 2200–1750 BCE. This dating is based on five samples mentioned in Allentoft (2015) Supplemetary Information,[63] along with ten new radiocarbon samples, three of them analized by AMS, from two cemeteries: one near Mount Berezovaya (Bulanovo) and the other at Tanabergen II, in the steppe Cis-Urals.[60][64] A series of 19 calibrated radiocarbon dating samples by Stephan Lindner, dates Sintashta-Petrovka complex exclusively in he Southern Trans-Urals to c. 2050-1750 BC.[65][66] The phase of the Petrovka culture can be dated c. 1900–1750 BCE.[67]




Ebla's Palace G archive


[68]



For Alalakh:

ArchaeologicalAge Amuq Phases Date (BC)
Terminal Early Bronze Late J 2050-2000
Middle and Late Bronze K, L, M 2000-1150
Iron I N 1150-900
Iron II O (Early-Mid.) 900-738



The following is a tentative correlation of Mitanni with nearby kingdoms until the reign of Tusratta by Stefano de Martino:[69]

Mitanni Egypt Hatti Alalah Kizzuwatna Terqa
Principate of Mittani Hattušili I
Rise of the kingdom of Mittani Muršili I
First attestation of Mittani Tuthmosis I
Kirta (?)
Šuttarna I (?) ? Qiš-Addu
Parattarna I ? Tuthmosis III ? Zidanza II Idrimi Pilliya Qiš-Addu
Sausadat (??)
Parsatatar
Sauštatar ? Tuthmosis III ? Tuthaliya I/II Niqmepa Šunaššura ? Qiš-Addu
ParattarnaII (??)
Artatama I Tuthmosis IV
Šuttarna II Amenophis III
Artašumara (Uthi)
Tušratta Amenophis IV Šuppiluliuma I


Khabur River Hattušili I

People

[edit]
Cylinder seal, c. 16th–15th century BC, Mitanni

The ethnicity of the people of Mitanni is difficult to ascertain. A treatise on the training of chariot horses by Kikkuli, a Mitanni writer, contains a number of Indo-Aryan glosses.


However, archaeologist Phaedra Bouvet regards these shards as KSK-Black Polished Wares, not linked technically to NBPW, except from their shape and style, produced between fourth and second centuries BCE, but indeed in contact with real NBPW producing populations.[70]

Although they cannot be considered as "classical" NBPW but local KSK-Black Polished Wares produced in Thailand.[70]

[citation needed]

table for Gonur article:

1. (~2500/2300–2000 BC), the foundation of the site to the construction of the palace.

2. (~2000–1900 BC), the construction of the palace to the “big fire” in the palace.

3. (~1900–1700 BC), the beginning of the restoration of the palace after the fire, until it ceased to function as a residence of the rulers of Gonur Depe.

4. (~1700–1600 BC), the time of the departure of the ruling elite and the use of the palace by the common members until its complete desolation.

5. (~1600–1500 BC), the time of the desolation of the palace to the complete abandonment of this territory by the people.


Phase Chronology Features
1 (~2500/2300–2000 BC) the foundation of the site until the construction of the palace.
2 (~2000–1900 BC) the construction of the palace until the “big fire” in the palace.
3 (~1900–1700 BC) the restoration of the palace after the fire till it ceased as a residence of the rulers.
4 (~1700–1600 BC) the departure of the rulers and the use of the palace by common members till its desolation.
5 (~1600–1500 BC) the desolation of the palace till the abandonment of this territory by the people.

Great: 75 

: p.75 


Period I, Phase 1-2 (4000-3800 BCE)

Period I, Phase 3-4 (3800-3400 BCE)

Period II, (3400-3200 BCE)

Period III, (3200-2900 BCE)

Period IV, (2900-2400 BCE)

Period Chronology Phase
I (~4000-3800 BCE) Ph. 1-2
I (~3800–3400 BCE) Ph. 3-4
II (~3400–3200 BCE)
III (~3200–2900 BCE)
IV (~2900–2400 BCE)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helladic_chronology#Late_Helladic_I_%28LHI%29

Period Approximate Date
LHI 1700–1600 BC
LHIIA 1635–1470 BC
LHIIB 1480–1410 BC
LHIIIA1 1420–1370 BC
LHIIIA2 1390–1315 BC
LHIIIB 1330–1200 BC
LHIIIC (Early) 1210–1160 BC
LHIIIC (Middle) 1170–1100 BC
LHIIIC (Late) 1100–1040 BC
Proto-Geometric 1070–900 BC


Historical event Ultra-long/Ultra-high chronology Long/High chronology Middle chronology Short/Low chronology Ultra-short/Ultra-low chronology
Akkadian Empire ? ? 2334–2154 BCE 2270–2083 BCE 2200–2018 BCE
Third Dynasty of Ur ? 2161–2054 BCE 2112–2004 BCE 2048–1940 BCE 2018–1911 BCE
Dynasty of Isin ? 2017–1793 BCE 1953-1730 BCE 1922–1698 BCE
First Dynasty of Babylon ? 1950–1651 BCE 1894–1595 BCE 1830–1531 BCE 1798–1499 BCE
Reign of Hammurabi 1933–1890 BCE[71] 1848–1806 BCE 1792–1750 BCE 1728–1686 BCE 1696–1654 BCE
Reign of Ammisaduqa ? 1702–1682 BCE 1646–1626 BCE 1582–1562 BCE 1550–1530 BCE
Fall of Babylon 1736 BCE[72] 1651 BCE 1595 BCE 1531 BCE 1499 BCE

For Mycenaean article:

Early Mycenaean period (c. 1750-1400 BCE):

Ceramic period Dates BCE
Middle Helladic III 1750/20-1700/1675
Late Helladic I 1700/1675-1635/00
Late Helladic IIA 1635/00-1480/70
Late Helladic IIB 1480/70-1420/10

Palatial Bronze Age (c. 1400-1200 BCE):

Ceramic period Dates BCE
Late Helladic III A1 1420/10-1390/70
Late Helladic III A2 1390/70-1330/15
Late Helladic III B 1330/15-1210/1200

Postpalatial Bronze Age:

Ceramic period Dates BCE
Late Helladic III C (Early) 1210/1200-1170/60
Late Helladic III C (Middle) 1170/60-1100
Late Helladic III C (Late) 1100-1070/40


Ceramic period Dates BCE
Early Protogeometric 1070/40-1000
Middle Protogeometric 1000-950
Late Protogeometric 950-900
  1. ^ Nikitin et al. 2022, p. 3: "Established dating, based on material culture, such as the presence of imports of ceramics from securely dated chronological periods, as well as radiometric radiocarbon dates on charcoal, pottery, and animal bone, primarily from the ditches of the Mayaky sanctuary (Table S1a), place the Usatove culture in the chronological period corresponding to ca. 3650-2740 BCE".
  2. ^ Knodell 2021, p. 117: "The Mycenaean palaces...".
  3. ^ Knodell 2021, p. 117: "The Mycenaean palaces were...".
  4. ^ Dasa 2007, p. 378: "The relation between Bhagavan and His potency is one of inconceivable difference in non-difference, known as achintya-bhedabheda. It is in recognition of the nature of this relation that Chaitanya’s philosophy is called Achintya bhedaabheda-vada".
  5. ^ Delmonico 2007, p. 549: "The form of Vaishnavism inspired by the sixteenth-century saint-reformer Shri Krishna Chaitanya (1486–1533 C.E.) rested heavily upon a belief in the purifying and salvific powers of the names of God, whose fullest self-revelation Chaitanya believed to be Krishna".
  6. ^ Lubin 2024, p. 21: "'[B]rahmins' (Skt. brāhmaṇa) [...] produced the mantras, exegeses, and ritual codes of the Vedic tradition, along with the earliest Vedāṅgas, or 'limbs of the Veda'—ancillary works expounding various aspects of language and ritual. Most notable among these was Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight Lessons,' c. 350 BCE), a foundational grammatical work that has set the standards for proper Sanskrit usage ever since".
  7. ^ Epimakhov, Zazovskaya & Alaeva 2023, p. 6: "The earliest values in the series refer to the Sintashta culture (Sintashta II [the early phase], Kamenny Ambar-5 [Kurgan 2])—2200–2000 calBC".
  8. ^ Chernykh 2009, p.136: "The author...was established within c. 2200–1770 BCE".
  9. ^ Chernykh 2009, "The author...was established within c. 2200–1770 BCE" (p. 136).
  10. ^ Blintliff 2012, p. 221.
  11. ^ a b Knodell 2021, p. 7 Table 1.
  12. ^ "The History of Greece". Hellenicfoundation.com. Archived from the original on 2016-12-07. Retrieved 2024-04-21.: "The period from 1100 to 800 B.C. is known as the Dark Age of Greece. As described in the Ancient Greek Thesaursus: Throughout the area there are signs of a sharp cultural decline. Some sites, formerly inhabited, were now abandoned."
  13. ^ Martin, Thomas R., (October 3, 2019). "The Dark Ages of Ancient Greece": "...The Near East recovered its strength much sooner than did Greece, ending its Dark Age by around 900 B.C...The end of the Greek Dark Age is traditionally placed some 150 years after that, at about 750 B.C..." Retrieved October 24, 2020
  14. ^ Goldman, Robert P., and Sally J. Sutherland Goldman, (eds.), 2022. The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: The Complete English Translation, Priceton University Press, p. 3: "The oldest surviving version of the great tale of Rāma, and the one that is doubtless the direct or indirect source of all of the hundreds and perhaps thousands of other versions of the story, is the monumental, mid-first millennium BCE epic poem in some twenty-five thousand Sanskrit couplets attributed to Vālmīki."
  15. ^ Goldman, Robert P.; Sutherland Goldman, Sally J. (2022). The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: The Complete English Translation. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780691206868.
  16. ^ Cunningham, Alexander (1871). Four Reports Made During The Years 1862-63-64-65, Vol. II, Archaeological Survey of India. Government central Press. p. 102.: "From Bazaria Alexander marched against Peukelaotis, seated not far from the Indus, which being surrendered to him, he placed a garrison in it, and 'proceeded,' according to Arrian, 'to take many other small towns situated on that river.'"
  17. ^ Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. p. 954. ISBN 9780199370184.
  18. ^ Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. p. 953. ISBN 9780199370184.
  19. ^ Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. p. 954. ISBN 9780199370184. We sacrifice to Tryambaka the fragrant, increaser of prosperity.Like a cucumber from its stem, might I be freed from death, not from deathlessness (VII.59 (575) Rudra (12)).
  20. ^ "British Library Collection, Manuscript CKM 2". Pokhala[di] pushi ? + (Verso 20).
  21. ^ "British Library Collection, Manuscript CKM 14". ...Pokhaladige...Pokhaladigo... (Verso 78-79).
  22. ^ Sahu 2008, "The population of the city could have been in the region of 20,000 to 25,000, the archaeologists claim [...] 'The significance of this ancient city becomes clear when one bears in mind the fact that the population of classical Athens was barely 10,000,' [R. K. Mohanty] said".
  23. ^ "Sisupalgarh had a flourishing urban life: researchers". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 2008-02-08. Archived from the original on 2008-02-11. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
  24. ^ Coppini, Costanza, (2022). "Problems of Transitions in Second Millennium BC Northern Mesopotamia: A View from Tell Barri (Northeastern Syria)", in: Studia Chaburensia 10 (2022), pp. 15, 20, 26.
  25. ^ Powell et al. 2023, Introduction: "The late part of the Early Bronze Age at Kültepe is represented by three phases, the last of which consists of two secondary sub-phases (EBA III = Kültepe Levels 13-11a-b) [...] The name Kaneš for the site is first attested during this period (wr. Ga-ni-šu ki, cf. Archi, 2017)".
  26. ^ Gojko Barjamovic: A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period; Copenhagen 2011. ISBN 978-87-635-3645-5, S. 231.
  27. ^ Gojko Barjamovic: A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period; Copenhagen 2011. ISBN 978-87-635-3645-5, S. 231.
  28. ^ Chernykh 2009, p. 136, "The author...was established within c. 2200–1770 BCE.".
  29. ^ Tkachev 2020, point 28: "[A] graph was constructed with a wide dating range of 2290–1750 BCE [68.2%, 1-sigma], 2480–1430 BCE [95.4%, 2-sigma]. It is noteworthy that the early trail of this interval is formed by dates from the burial ground at Mount Berezovaya and the Tanabergen II burial: 7/23 (Le-8840). The late group is formed by dates from Tanabergen II burials: 7/22, 30, 36 (Le-9675, Le-8841, Le-8842)".
  30. ^ Levy, Eythan, et al., (2021). "The Date of Appearance of Philistine Pottery at Megiddo: A Computational Approach", in Bulletin of ASOR, Ahead of Print.
  31. ^ Feldman, Liane M. (April 16, 2024). The Consuming Fire, Hebrew Edition: The Complete Priestly Source, from Creation to the Promised Land. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520383685.
  32. ^ Buhler, Axel, et al. (November 17, 2023), p. 8.
  33. ^ Buhler, Axel, et al. (November 17, 2023), p. 2.
  34. ^ Buhler, Axel, et al. (November 17, 2023), p. 3.
  35. ^ Buhler, Axel; et al. (November 17, 2023). "Exploring the Stylistic Uniqueness of the Priestly Source in Genesis and Exodus Through a Statistical/computational Lens". SocArXiv: 1–16. doi:10.31235/osf.io/mduy2.
  36. ^ Buhler, Axel, et al. (November 17, 2023), p. 3.
  37. ^ Buhler, Axel, et al. (November 17, 2023), p. 9.
  38. ^ Epimakhov; Zazovskaya; Alaeva 2020, p. 13, "The earliest values in the series refer to the Sintashta culture (Sintashta II [the early phase], Kamenny Ambar-5 [Kurgan 2]) [and are] c. 2200–2000 calBC.".
  39. ^ Tkachev 2020, p. 31, "The author presents the results of radiocarbon dating of burials from the Sintashta cemetery near Mount Berezovaya (Bulanovo) and Tanabergen II in the steppe Cis-Urals. The series consists of 10 calibrated radiocarbon dates, three of which were obtained using AMS accelerated technology. As a result of the implementation of statistical procedures, a chronological interval for the functioning of necropolises was established within c. 2200–1770 BCE.".
  40. ^ Chintalapati, Manjusha; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya (July 18, 2022). "The spatiotemporal patterns of major human admixture events during the European Holocene". eLife (11): e77625. doi:10.7554/eLife.77625.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  41. ^ Septuagint Bible, "Joshua 12:21": "...βασιλέα Τανάχ, βασιλέα Μαγεδών..." ("...the king of Taanach, the king of Magedón...")
  42. ^ Septuagint Bible, "Judges 5:19": "ἦλθον αὐτῶν βασιλεῖς, παρετάξαντο, τότε ἐπολέμησαν βασιλεῖς Χαναὰν ἐν Θαναὰχ ἐπὶ ὕδατι Μαγεδδώ." ("Kings set themselves in array, then the kings of Chanaan fought in Thanaach at the water of Mageddó; they took no gift of money.") Bible Study Tools, "Bible Versions: LXX"
  43. ^ Septuagint Bible, "Joshua 17:11": "καὶ ἔσται Μανασσῆ ἐν ᾿Ισσάχαρ καὶ ἐν ᾿Ασὴρ Βαιθσὰν καὶ αἱ κῶμαι αὐτῶν καὶ τοὺς κατοικοῦντας Δὼρ καὶ τὰς κώμας αὐτῆς, καὶ τοὺς κατοικοῦντας Μαγεδδώ..."
  44. ^ English Latin Bible: Biblia Sacra Vulgata 405, Second Kings 23:29: "...et abiit Iosias rex in occursum eius et occisus est in Mageddo cum vidisset eum..."
  45. ^ Finkelstein, Israel (2019). "First Israel, Core Israel, United (Northern) Israel". Near Eastern Archaeology. 82 (1). American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR): 8–15. doi:10.1086/703321. S2CID 167052643.
  46. ^ Olivieri, Luca M., (2019). "The early-historic funerary monuments of Butkara IV. New evidence on a forgotten excavation in outer Gandhara", in: Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, Nuova Serie, Volume XCII, Fasc. 1-2, Sapienza Università di Roma, Pisa-Roma, p. 231: "[T]he Swat Protohistoric Graveyards complex (henceforth: SPG), {was] first published by Chiara Silvi Antonini and Giorgio Stacul (1972). More recent studies and fieldwork, though, have changed the SPG chronologies (c. 1200-800 BCE) demonstrating that there are no SPG features posterior to 800 BCE (Vidale, Micheli and Olivieri 2016; Narasimhan et al. 2019)."
  47. ^ Olivieri, Luca M., Roberto Micheli, Massimo Vidale, and Muhammad Zahir, (2019). 'Late Bronze - Iron Age Swat Protohistoric Graves (Gandhara Grave Culture), Swat Valley, Pakistan (n-99)', in Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al., "Supplementary Materials for the formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", Science 365 (6 September 2019), pp. 137-164.
  48. ^ Olivieri, Luca M., (2019). "The Early-Historic Funerary Monuments of Butkara IV: New Evidence on a Forgotten Excavation in Outer Gandhara", in Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, Nuova Serie, Volume XCII, Fasc. 1-2, Sapienza Universitá di Roma, Instituto Italiano di Studi Orientali, Pisa-Rome, p. 231: "...More recent studies and fieldwork, though, have changed the SPG [Swat Protohistoric Graveyards] chronologies (c. 1200-800 BCE) demonstrating that there are no SPG features posterior to 800 BCE..."
  49. ^ Coningham, Robin, and Mark Manuel, (2008). "Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier", Asia, South, in Encyclopedia of Archaeology 2008, Elsevier, p. 740.
  50. ^ Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al. (2019). "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", in Science 365 (6 September 2019), p. 11: "...we estimate the date of admixture into the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age individuals from the Swat District of northernmost South Asia to be, on average, 26 generations before the date that they lived, corresponding to a 95% confidence interval of ~1900 to 1500 BCE..."
  51. ^ Olivieri, Luca M., (2019). "The early-historic funerary monuments of Butkara IV. New evidence on a forgotten excavation in outer Gandhara", in: Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, Nuova Serie, Volume XCII, Fasc. 1-2, Sapienza Università di Roma, Pisa-Roma, p. 231: "[T]he Swat Protohistoric Graveyards complex (henceforth: SPG), {was] first published by Chiara Silvi Antonini and Giorgio Stacul (1972). More recent studies and fieldwork, though, have changed the SPG chronologies (c. 1200-800 BCE) demonstrating that there are no SPG features posterior to 800 BCE (Vidale, Micheli and Olivieri 2016; Narasimhan et al. 2019)."
  52. ^ Olivieri, Luca M., (2019). "The Early-Historic Funerary Monuments of Butkara IV: New Evidence on a Forgotten Excavation in Outer Gandhara", in Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, Nuova Serie, Volume XCII, Fasc. 1-2, Sapienza Universitá di Roma, Instituto Italiano di Studi Orientali, Pisa-Rome, p. 231: "...More recent studies and fieldwork, though, have changed the SPG [Swat Protohistoric Graveyards] chronologies (c. 1200-800 BCE) demonstrating that there are no SPG features posterior to 800 BCE..."
  53. ^ Zahir, Muhammad, (2022). "The Distribution and Contextualization of Protohistoric and Historic Cemeteries around Singoor Village, Chitral, Pakistan", Journal of Asian Civilizations, Vol. 45, No. 1, June 2022, pp. 1-37.
  54. ^ Coningham, Robin, and Mark Manuel, (2008). "Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier", Asia, South, in Encyclopedia of Archaeology 2008, Elsevier, p. 740.
  55. ^ Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al. (2019). "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", in Science 365 (6 September 2019), p. 11: "...we estimate the date of admixture into the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age individuals from the Swat District of northernmost South Asia to be, on average, 26 generations before the date that they lived, corresponding to a 95% confidence interval of ~1900 to 1500 BCE..."
  56. ^ a b Mutin, Benjamin, and Leah Minc, (2019). "The formative phase of the Helmand Civilization, Iran and Afghanistan: New data from compositional analysis of ceramics from Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran", in Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports Volume 23, February 2019, pp. 881-899.
  57. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Sajjadi was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  58. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ascalone and Fabbri was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  59. ^ Müller, Hinz & Ulrich 2015.
  60. ^ a b Tkachev, Vitaly V., (2020). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Sintashta Culture Sites in the Steppe Cis-Urals", in: Russian Archaeology No. 2, 2020, pp. 31-44. : "The author presents the results of radiocarbon dating of burials from the Sintashta cemetery near Mount Berezovaya (Bulanovo) and Tanabergen II in the steppe Cis-Urals. The series consists of 10 calibrated radiocarbon dates, three of which were obtained using AMS accelerated technology. As a result of the implementation of statistical procedures, a chronological interval for the functioning of necropolises was established within the c. 2200–1770 BCE."
  61. ^ a b Lindner, Stephan, (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC", in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 362: "...The publication of new radiocarbon data series from selected burial sites in the South-eastern Urals has helped to establish a much more accurate chronology for the late Middle Bronze Age Sintashta-Petrovka complex (Hanks et al. 2007: 362, fig. 3)..."
  62. ^ Koryakova 1998b
  63. ^ Allentoft, Morten E., et al., (2015). "Supplementary Information", p. 12: "RISE 386 Russia Bulanovo Sintashta burial 4 tooth, 2298-2045 cal BC Male adult...RISE 391 Kazakhstan Tanabergen II Sintashta kurgan 7 burial 36 tooth, 2120-1887 cal BC Male adult (aDNA sex: Female)... RISE 392...RISE 394...RISE 395...[2298-1756 cal BC]."
  64. ^ Chechushkov, Igor, (2018). Bronze Age Human Communities in the Southern Urals Steppe: Sintashta Petrovka Social and Subsistence Organization, Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburg, p. iv: "...the Late Bronze Age Sintashta-Petrovka chiefdoms of the southern Urals (cal. 2050–1750 BC)..."
  65. ^ Lindner, Stephan, (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC", in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 367: "...The 12 calibrated radiocarbon dates belonging to the Sintashta horizon range between 2050 and 1760 cal BC (at 95.4% confidence; Epimakhov & Krause 2013: 137). These dates correlate well with the seven AMS-sampled Sintashta graves in the associated KA-5cemetery, which date to 2040–1730 cal BC (95.4% confidence...)... in the Southern Trans-Urals."
  66. ^ Lindner, Stephan, (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC", in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 364: "...Indeed, a new radiocarbon series has confirmed the position of the Petrovka stage in the nineteenth to eighteenth centuries BC (Krause et al. 2019). Recent research at the enclosed settlement of Kamennyj Ambar in the Karagajly Ajat River valley (Chelyabinsk Oblast) supports this stratigraphic evidence, based on the existence of different occupation phases...."
  67. ^ Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age", in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), p.27: Five AMS dates for Petrovka culture are "within the range 1880-1750 BC...", these are dates of two sites, Ustye and Kulevchi (Molodin et al., 2014, p.142), "which are located on the territory of Sintashta culture..."
  68. ^ "Harrison, Thimothy P., (2013). "Recent Discoveries at Tayinat (Ancient Kunulua/Calno) and Their Biblical Implications". Congress Volume Munich 2013. BRILL. 2014-01-01. pp. 396–425. doi:10.1163/9789004281226_017.
  69. ^ De Martino, Stefano, (2004). "A Tentative Chronology of the Kingdom of Mittani from its Rise to the Reign of Tusratta", in Mesopotamian Dark Age Revisited: Proceedings of an International Conference of SCIEM 2000, Vienna 8th-9th November 2002, Vienna, p. 40, Table 1.
  70. ^ a b Bouvet, Phaedra, (2011). "Preliminary Study of Indian and Indian Style Wares from Khao Sam Kaeo (Chumphon, Peninsular Thailand), Fourth - Second Centuries BCE", in Pierre-Yves Manguin, A. Mani, and Geoff Wade, (eds.), Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, pp. 70 - 72.
  71. ^ Orientalia. Pontificium institutum biblicum. 1998. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
  72. ^ Eder, Christian. Assyrische Distanzangaben und die absolute Chronologie Vorderasiens, AoF 31, 191–236, 2004.
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