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User:Billy.bmm020/Anaplasma bovis

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Anaplasma bovis is gram negative, obligate intracellular organism, which can be found in wild and domestic ruminants, and potentially a wide variety of other species. It is one of the last species of the Family Anaplasmaceae (formerly Ehrlichiaceae) to be formally described. It preferentially infects host monocytes, and is often diagnosed via blood smears, PCR, and ELISA. A. bovis is not currently considered zoonotic, and does not frequently cause serious clinical disease in its host (although clinical disease has been noted in calves). This organism is transmitted by tick vectors, so tick bite prevention is the mainstay of A. bovis control, although clinical infections can be treated with tetracyclines.

History and Taxonomy

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The clinical syndrome which is now linked to members of the genus Anaplasma have been reported since 1780, although at the time, the actual pathogenic agent was not yet known.[1] In the early 1900s, many other members of this genus were described and determined to be the causative agent of Anaplasmosis in a wide variety of domestic and wildlife species[2]. Anaplasma bovis itself, was first identified in 1936, in cattle hosts.[3]

With the development of more sensitive molecular methods, there has been a drastic reorganization in the taxonomic classifications of Rickettsial organisms within the past 20 years. Generally, these organisms are grouped according to morphology, ecology, epidemiology, and clinical characteristics.[1] Under the previous taxonomic organization, the order contained 2 families; Family Rickettsialaceae, and Family Ehrlicheae. In the dramatic reorganization that occurred in 2001, the family Ehrlichiaceae was replaced by family Anaplasmaceae, and via molecular phylogenetic analyses, the genera within these classes were redistributed based on genetic similarities.[4] The current taxonomic organization the Genera Anaplasama, Ehrlichia, Wolbachia, and Neorickettsia within the Family Anaplasmaceae, and the Genera Rickettsia and Orientia within the Family Rickettsiaceae.[1]

Anaplasma bovis is currently one of 6 recognized species within the Genus Anaplasma. Other members of this genus include the species A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. platys, A. ovis, and A. centrale[5]

Morphological Characteristics

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Anaplasma bovis is a gram negative obligate intracellular bacteria.[6] The bacteria lives within the mononuclear cells of cattle, specifically monocytes. When the bacteria is suspected you can take a blood smear and observe the cells for presence of A. bovis within. Commonly observed forms on a blood smear are small spherical bodies within monocytes that can measure from 0.5 to 6 μm.[7] The morulae have acidophilic shades including pale red, dark purple, light purple and pink. A study by Prasath, N.B. et, al. showed that about 80% of monocytes contained inclusion bodies in an infected Jersey cow.

Epidemiology

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Geographic Distribution

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Kawahara M., Rikihisa Y., Lin Q., Isogo E., Tahara K., Itagaki A., Hiramitsu Y., Tajima T. (2006): Novel genetic variants of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma central, and novel Ehrlichia sp. in wild deer and ticks on two Major Islands in Japan. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72, 1102–1109

Santos C.F., Carvalho C.B. (2006): First report of Anaplasma bovis (Donatien and Lestoquard, 1936) Dumler et al. (2001) at micro region of Campos dos Goytacazes, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinaria, 15, 126–127

Transmission and Risk Factors

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Anaplasma bovis is spread from host to host by tick vectors, specifically from the genera Ixodes, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, and Amblyomma.[1] The tick consumes a blood meal from an infected cattle host, taking up the bacteria. A. bovis can then be transmitted to a different animal when the tick goes on to take another blood meal from a susceptible bovine.[8]

In assessing risk factors for infection with Anaplasma, it was found that breed, location, sex, and season impact prevalence rates.[9] Exotic goat breeds were found to have higher prevalence rates when compared to indigenous breeds. In the summer, cattle and sheep have greater infections, compared to goats having greater infections in autumn.[9] Further, it was found that goats in a sub-humid area had significantly greater infections, and prevalence rate varied with differences in goat and sheep flocks.[10]

Virulence Factors

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As an obligate intracellular pathogen, A. bovis exhibits cell and tissue tropism by preferentially infecting monocytes.[11] However, more specific virulence factors have not been identified,[12] and presentation of A. bovis in monocytes can vary.[13]

Clinical Significance

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Cattle

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Infection with Anaplasma bovis causes a disease known as monocytic anaplasmosis in cattle.[1] Infection is characterized by invasion of the organism into white blood cells called monocytes.[1] Infection with A. bovis in cattle is considered to be asymptomatic in most cases.[14] The OIE reports that A. bovis does not cause disease, however case reports of clinical illness do exist.[15][16] Clinical disease is most likely to be detected in calves.[1] Clinically apparent infection manifests as a febrile illness with enlarged prescapular lymph nodes, mucous discharge, and pale mucous membranes. Anaplasmosis is also known to be a production limiting disease resulting in decreased milk production and weight loss.[17] Other species of Anaplasma, most commonly A. marginale, are well documented to cause disease in cattle.[15]

Other species

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Anaplasma species typically infect ruminants.[18] A. bovis may also infect various types of deer, buffalo, goats, cottontail rabbits, racoons, and dogs.[14][19] There is a case report in the literature of infection with A. bovis in a horse.[19] The horse presented with anorexia, low body condition, lethargy, and was febrile. A. bovis is not known to be transmissible to people and as such does not have zoonotic potential.[1]

DNA fragments of A. bovis have also been reported to be found in deer, raccoons, dogs, domestic cats, Hokkaido brown bear, and wildcats in Japan.[20]

Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment

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Diagnosis of Anaplasma infections relies mainly on visual inspection of blood smears along with molecular methods such as PCR and ELISA.[15] On blood smears, bacterial inclusions within monocytes may be visible. Live vaccines against other species of Anaplasma exist, however due to the low pathogenicity of A. bovis, there is no specific vaccine for this species. Prevention of tick bites using environmental control and parasiticides helps to prevent transmission of the organism.[17] Tetracycline antibiotics are typically used to treat clinical anaplasmosis.[18]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Rymaszewska, A.; Grenda, S. (2008-12-15). "Bacteria of the genus Anaplasma – characteristics of Anaplasma and their vectors: a review". Veterinární Medicína. 53 (11): 573–584. doi:10.17221/1861-vetmed. ISSN 0375-8427.
  2. ^ Kuttler, K. L. (January 1984). "ANAPLASMA INFECTIONS IN WILD AND DOMESTIC RUMINANTS: A REVIEW". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 20 (1): 12–20. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-20.1.12. ISSN 0090-3558.
  3. ^ ATIF, FARHAN AHMAD (2016-03-02). "Alpha proteobacteria of genusAnaplasma(Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae): Epidemiology and characteristics ofAnaplasmaspecies related to veterinary and public health importance". Parasitology. 143 (6): 659–685. doi:10.1017/s0031182016000238. ISSN 0031-1820.
  4. ^ Dumler, J S; Barbet, A F; Bekker, C P; Dasch, G A; Palmer, G H; Ray, S C; Rikihisa, Y; Rurangirwa, F R (2001-11-01). "Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia equi and 'HGE agent' as subjective synonyms of Ehrlichia phagocytophila". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 51 (6): 2145–2165. doi:10.1099/00207713-51-6-2145. ISSN 1466-5026.
  5. ^ YBAÑEZ, Adrian Patalinghug; SASHIKA, Mariko; INOKUMA, Hisashi (2014). "The Phylogenetic Position of Anaplasma bovis and Inferences on the Phylogeny of the Genus Anaplasma". Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 76 (2): 307–312. doi:10.1292/jvms.13-0411. ISSN 0916-7250.
  6. ^ Liu, Z., Ma, M., Wang, Z., Wang, J., Peng, Y., Li, Y., Guan, G., Luo, J., & Yin, H. (2012). Molecular survey and genetic identification of Anaplasma species in goats from central and southern China. Applied and environmental microbiology, 78(2), 464–470. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.06848-11
  7. ^ Prasath, N. B., Selvaraj, J., Jeyathilakan, N., Saravanan, M., Saravanan, M., Ahamad, D. B., and Sasikala, M. 2016. Occurrence of Anaplasma bovis (Ehrlichia bovis) with varying morphology in a crossbred cow in Tamilnadu, India. Indian J. Vet. Pathol. 40(2): 165-167.
  8. ^ Ueti, Massaro W.; Reagan, James O.; Knowles, Donald P.; Scoles, Glen A.; Shkap, Varda; Palmer, Guy H. (2007-06-01). "Identification of Midgut and Salivary Glands as Specific and Distinct Barriers to Efficient Tick-Borne Transmission of Anaplasma marginale". Infection and Immunity. 75 (6): 2959–2964. doi:10.1128/IAI.00284-07. ISSN 0019-9567. PMID 17420231.
  9. ^ a b Eisawi, Nagwa M.; El Hussein, Abdel Rahim M.; Hassan, Dina A.; Musa, Azza B.; Hussien, Mohammed O.; Enan, Khalid A.; Bakheit, Mohammed A. (2020-07-01). "A molecular prevalence survey on Anaplasma infection among domestic ruminants in Khartoum State, Sudan". Tropical Animal Health and Production. 52 (4): 1845–1852. doi:10.1007/s11250-019-02176-7. ISSN 1573-7438.
  10. ^ Ben Said, Mourad; Belkahia, Hanène; Karaoud, Maroua; Bousrih, Maha; Yahiaoui, Mouna; Daaloul-Jedidi, Monia; Messadi, Lilia (2015-09-30). "First molecular survey of Anaplasma bovis in small ruminants from Tunisia". Veterinary Microbiology. 179 (3): 322–326. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.022. ISSN 0378-1135.
  11. ^ Zobba, Rosanna; Anfossi, Antonio G.; Pinna Parpaglia, Maria Luisa; Dore, Gian Mario; Chessa, Bernardo; Spezzigu, Antonio; Rocca, Stefano; Visco, Stefano; Pittau, Marco; Alberti, Alberto (January 2014). "Molecular Investigation and Phylogeny of Anaplasma spp. in Mediterranean Ruminants Reveal the Presence of Neutrophil-Tropic Strains Closely Related to A. platys". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 80 (1): 271–280. doi:10.1128/AEM.03129-13. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 3911010. PMID 24162569.
  12. ^ "Molecular detection of Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma platys, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii and Babesia canis vogeli in ticks from Israel". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 17 (3): 459–463. 2011-03-01. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03316.x. ISSN 1198-743X.
  13. ^ Prasath, N. Babu; Selvaraj, J.; Jeyathilakan, N.; Saravanan, M.; Ahamad, D. Basheer; Sasikala, M. (2016). "Occurrence ofAnaplasma bovis(Ehrlichia bovis) with varying morphology in a crossbred cow in Tamilnadu, India". Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology. 40 (2): 165. doi:10.5958/0973-970x.2016.00036.5. ISSN 0250-4758.
  14. ^ a b Goethert, H. K.; Telford, S. R. (2003-08-01). "Enzootic Transmission of Anaplasma bovis in Nantucket Cottontail Rabbits". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 41 (8): 3744–3747. doi:10.1128/jcm.41.8.3744-3747.2003. ISSN 0095-1137.
  15. ^ a b c STEAR, M. J. (2005-02-22). "OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (Mammals, Birds and Bees) 5th Edn. Volumes 1 & 2. World Organization for Animal Health 2004. ISBN 92 9044 622 6. €140". Parasitology. 130 (6): 727–727. doi:10.1017/s0031182005007699. ISSN 0031-1820.
  16. ^ Priyanka, Mahadappa; Dhanalakshmi, H.; Rakesh, R. L.; Thimmareddy, P. M.; Narayana Bhat, M. (2016-12-09). "Monocytic anaplasmosis in a cow: a case report". Journal of Parasitic Diseases. 41 (3): 687–688. doi:10.1007/s12639-016-0867-1. ISSN 0971-7196.
  17. ^ a b "Anaplasmosis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
  18. ^ a b "Anaplasmosis - Circulatory System". Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved 2020-11-04.
  19. ^ a b Seo, Min-Goo; Kwon, Oh-Deog; Kwak, Dongmi (2019-04-18). "Anaplasma bovis infection in a horse: First clinical report and molecular analysis". Veterinary Microbiology. 233: 47–51. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.024. ISSN 0378-1135.
  20. ^ Ybañez, Adrian Patalinghug; Inokuma, Hisashi (November 2016). "Anaplasma species of veterinary importance in Japan". Veterinary World. 9 (11): 1190–1196. doi:10.14202/vetworld.2016.1190-1196. ISSN 0972-8988. PMC 5146296. PMID 27956767.
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