User:Battling McGook/Sentence spacing

Double sentence-spaced typewriter text (1946) vs. single sentence-spaced typeset text (1979)

Sentence spacing is the horizontal space between sentences in typeset text. Since the introduction of movable-type printing in Europe, varying sentence spacing has been used in languages with a Latin-derived alphabet. Throughout history, most printed texts have used wider spacing between sentences than that used between words, however word spacing was not uncommon. During the 20th century, the use of word spacing between sentences has become much more common, overtaking wider spacing in printed text. There has been much debate about why this has happened, and whether this trend is a standard that people should follow, or simply a style choice that happens to be more popular right now.

Until the 20th century, printing house and printers in many countries used wider spacing between sentences. There were exceptions to this traditional spacing—printers sometimes preferred word spacing. Traditional printing methods allowed printers to vary the spacing between words and sentences in tiny increments, allowing them to basically set spacing to any desired width. With the introduction of the typewriter however, people were only had one single space available that was the same size as all of the letters. In order to replicate the wider sentence spacing used in most printing, people were taught to press the spacebar twice between sentences. This also changed the way we thought about space, as something to be counted rather than measured. With the computer age, this has continued, as we still only have one space character on standard keyboards. Much of the debate today seems to center around how many spaces should be used, rather than how much space, and given the differences between plain text and formatted text, it isn't clear if they should be considered to be the same issue.

--

These include a word space (as between the words in a sentence), a single enlarged space, two full spaces, and, most recently in digital media, no space. Although modern digital fonts can automatically adjust a single word space to create visually pleasing and consistent spacing following terminal punctuation, most debate is about whether to strike a keyboard's spacebar once or twice between sentences.

Until the 20th century, publishing houses and printers in many countries used single, but enlarged, spaces between sentences. There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method—printers in some countries preferred single spacing. This was French spacing—a term synonymous with single space sentence spacing until the late 20th century. Double spacing, or placing two spaces between sentences (sometimes referred to as English spacing), came into widespread use with the introduction of the typewriter in the late 19th century. It was felt that with the monospaced font used by a typewriter, "a single word space ... was not wide enough to create a sufficient space between sentences" and that extra space might help signal the end of a sentence. This caused a widespread change in practice. From the late 19th century, printers were told to ignore their typesetting manuals in favor of typewriter spacing; Monotype and Linotype operators used double sentence spacing and this was widely taught in typing classes.

With the introduction of proportional fonts in computers, double sentence spacing became obsolete, according to many experts. These proportional fonts now assign appropriate horizontal space to each character (including punctuation marks), and typesetting programs such as TeX can modify kerning values to adjust spaces following terminal punctuation, so there is less need to increase spacing manually between sentences. From around 1950, single sentence spacing became standard in books, magazines and newspapers. Regardless, many still believe that double spaces are correct. The debate continues, notably on the World Wide Web—as many people use search engines to try to find what is correct. Many people prefer double sentence spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type. There is a debate on which convention is more readable, but the few recent direct studies conducted since 2002 have produced inconclusive results.

Much modern literature on typography says that double spacing is not desirable, but some non-typographical sources indicate that it could be used on a typewriter or with a monospaced font. The majority of style guides opt for a single space after terminal punctuation for final and published work, with a few permitting double spacing in draft manuscripts and for specific circumstances based on personal preference. Grammar and design guides, including Web design guides, provide similar guidance.

History

Main article: History of sentence spacing

Traditional typesetting

Single sentence spaced typeset text with an em-space between sentences (1909)

Early printing systems were limited to inflexible word spacing. Improvements that allowed variable spacing soon appeared. Early American, English, and other European typesetters' style guides (also known as printers' rules) specified spacing standards that were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards. These guides—e.g., Jacobi in the UK (1890) and MacKellar, Harpel, and De Vinne (1866–1901) in the U.S.—indicated that sentences should be em-spaced, and that words should be 1/3 or 1/2 em-spaced (illustration right). Only a single type block was typically used, which resulted in the appearance of about a double word space between sentences. For most countries, this remained the standard for published work until the 20th century. Yet, even in this period, there were publishing houses (notably in France) that used a standard word space between sentences—a technique called French spacing (illustration below).

Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriter

Mechanical type systems introduced near the end of the 19th century, such as the Linotype and Monotype machines, allowed variable sentence spacing. However, with the advent of the typewriter and its widespread usage beginning in the late 19th century, the average text composer had only two possibilities—to strike the space bar once or twice between sentences. Most typewriters' mechanical limitations did not allow variable spacing. (Several models of proportional-spacing typewriters have been manufactured, but they were always a minority.) This caused a fundamental change in sentence spacing methods. Typists in some English-speaking countries learned to insert two spaces between sentences to approximate the exaggerated sentence spacing used in traditional printing, a practice that continued throughout the 20th century. This became known as English spacing, and marked a divergence from French typists, who continued to use French spacing.

French spaced typeset text (1874)

Transition to single spacing

Professional printers moved from double to single sentence spacing in the 20th century. Magazines, newspapers, and books began to adopt the single space convention in the United States in the 1940s and in the United Kingdom in the 1950s. Typists did not transition to single spacing simultaneously. The average writer still relied on the typewriter to create text—with its inherent mechanical spacing limitations.

Technological advances began affecting sentence spacing methods. In 1941, IBM introduced the Executive, a typewriter capable of proportional spacing—which had been used in professional typesetting for hundreds of years. This innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had on the typewriter—reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations. "By the 1960s, electronic phototypesetting systems" ignored runs of white space in text. This was also true of the World Wide Web, as HTML ignores additional spacing, but this is due to a limitiation of the underlying technology, and the lack of any tags to indicate sentence structure. Computers offered additional sentence spacing tools for the average writer, and the double spacing convention, "as a standard operating procedure ... went out with the IBM Selectric". By the late 20th century, literature on the written word had begun to adjust its guidance on sentence spacing.

Modern literature

Typography

Early positions on typography (the "arrangement and appearance of text") supported traditional spacing techniques in English publications. In 1954, Geoffrey Dowding's book, Finer Points in the Spacing and Arrangement of Type, underscored the widespread shift from a single enlarged em space to a standard word space between sentences.

With the advent of the computer age, typographers began deprecating double spacing, even in monospaced text. In 1989, Desktop Publishing by Design stated that "typesetting requires only one space after periods, question marks, exclamation points, and colons", and identified single sentence spacing as a typographic convention. Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works (1993) and Designing with Type: The Essential Guide to Typography (2006) both indicate that uniform spacing should be used between words, including between sentences.

More recent works on typography weigh in strongly. Ilene Strizver, founder of the Type Studio, says, "Forget about tolerating differences of opinion: typographically speaking, typing two spaces before the start of a new sentence is absolutely, unequivocally wrong." The Complete Manual on Typography (2003) states that "The typewriter tradition of separating sentences with two word spaces after a period has no place in typesetting" and the single space is "standard typographic practice". The Elements of Typographic Style (2004) advocates a single space between sentences, noting that "your typing as well as your typesetting will benefit from unlearning this quaint [double spacing] Victorian habit."

David Jury's book, About Face: Reviving the Rules of Typography (2004)—published in Switzerland—clarifies the contemporary typographic position on sentence spacing:

Word spaces, preceding or following punctuation, should be optically adjusted to appear to be of the same value as a standard word space. If a standard word space is inserted after a full point or a comma, then, optically, this produces a space of up to 50% wider than that of other word spaces within a line of type. This is because these punctuation marks carry space above them, which, when added to the adjacent standard word spaces, combines to create a visually larger space. Some argue that the "additional" space after a comma and full point serves as a "pause signal" for the reader. But this is unnecessary (and visually disruptive) since the pause signal is provided by the punctuation mark itself.

Style and language guides

Main article: Sentence spacing in language and style guides

Traditional spacing examples from the 1911 Chicago Manual of Style

Style guides

Early style guides for typesetting used a wider space between sentences than between words— "traditional spacing," as shown in the illustration to the right. During the 20th century, style guides commonly mandated two spaces between sentences for typewritten manuscripts, which were used prior to professionally typesetting the work. As computer desktop publishing became commonplace, typewritten manuscripts became less relevant and most style guides stopped making distinctions between manuscripts and final typeset products. In the same period, style guides began changing their guidance on sentence spacing. The 1969 edition of the Chicago Manual of Style used em spaces between sentences in its text; by the 2003 edition it had changed to single sentence spacing for both manuscript and print. By the 1980s, the United Kingdom's Hart's Rules (1983) had shifted to single sentence spacing. Other style guides followed suit in the 1990s. Soon after the beginning of the 21st century, the majority of style guides had changed to indicate that only one word space was proper between sentences.

Modern style guides provide standards and guidance for the written language. These works are important to writers since "virtually all professional editors work closely with one of them in editing a manuscript for publication." Late editions of comprehensive style guides, such as the Oxford Style Manual (2003) in the United Kingdom and the Chicago Manual of Style (2010) in the United States, provide standards for a wide variety of writing and design topics, including sentence spacing. The majority of style guides now prescribe the use of a single space after terminal punctuation in final written works and publications. A few style guides allow double sentence spacing for draft work, and the Gregg Reference Manual makes room for double and single sentence spacing based on author preferences. Web design guides do not usually provide guidance on this topic, as "HTML refuses to recognize double spaces altogether". These works themselves follow the current publication standard of single sentence spacing.

The European Union's Interinstitutional Style Guide (2008) indicates that single sentence spacing is to be used in all European Union publications—encompassing 23 languages. For the English language, the European Commission's English Style Guide (2010) states that sentences are always single-spaced. The Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers (2007), first published in 1966 by the Commonwealth Government Printing Office of Australia, stipulates that only one space is used after "sentence-closing punctuation", and that "Programs for word processing and desktop publishing offer more sophisticated, variable spacing, so this practice of double spacing is now avoided because it can create distracting gaps on a page."

National languages not covered by an authoritative language academy typically have multiple style guides—only some of which may discuss sentence spacing. This is the case in the United Kingdom. The Oxford Style Manual (2003) and the Modern Humanities Research Association's MHRA Style Guide (2002), state that only single spacing should be used. In Canada, both the English and French language sections of the Canadian Style, A Guide to Writing and Editing (1997), prescribe single sentence spacing. In the United States, many style guides—such as the Chicago Manual of Style (2003)—allow only single sentence spacing. The most important style guide in Italy, Il Nuovo Manuale di Stile (2009), does not address sentence spacing, but the Guida di Stile Italiano (2010), the official guide for Microsoft translation, tells users to use single sentence spacing "instead of the double spacing used in the United States".

Language guides

Some languages, such as French and Spanish, have academies that set language rules. Their publications typically address orthography and grammar as opposed to matters of typography. Style guides are less relevant for such languages, as their academies set prescriptive rules. For example, the Académie française publishes the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française for French speakers worldwide. The 1992 edition does not provide guidance on sentence spacing, but is single-sentence-spaced throughout—consistent with historical French spacing. The Spanish language is similar. The most important body within the Association of Spanish Language Academies, the Real Academia Española, publishes the Diccionario de la Lengua Española, which is viewed as prescriptive for the Spanish language worldwide. The 2001 edition does not provide sentence spacing guidance, but is itself single sentence spaced. The German language manual Empfehlungen des Rats für Deutsche Rechtschreibung ("Recommendations of the Council for German Orthography") (2006) does not address sentence spacing. The manual itself uses one space after terminal punctuation. Additionally, the Duden, the German language dictionary most commonly used in Germany, indicates that double sentence spacing is an error.

Grammar guides

A few reference grammars address sentence spacing, as increased spacing between words is punctuation in itself. Most do not. Grammar guides typically cover terminal punctuation and the proper construction of sentences—but not the spacing between sentences. Moreover, many modern grammar guides are designed for quick reference and refer users to comprehensive style guides for additional matters of writing style. For example, the Pocket Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Punctuation (2005) points users to style guides such as the MLA Style Manual for consistency in formatting work and for all other "editorial concerns". The Grammar Bible (2004) states that "The modern system of English punctuation is by no means simple. A book that covers all the bases would need to be of considerable breadth and weight and anyone interested in such a resource is advised to consult the Chicago Manual of Style."

Digital age

Main article: Sentence spacing in digital media

Mignon Fogarty, "Grammar Girl", points out that in the past typewriting used two spaces—in deference to its monospaced font limitations—but "Now that most writing is done on computers it is no longer necessary to type two spaces after a period at the end of a sentence." She answers the question of "How many spaces?" as follows: "On a typewriter, use two. On a computer, use one." This position highlights the late 20th-century transition from the typewriter to the computer, and its effect on sentence spacing.

Today, computers and digital fonts allow sentence spacing variations not possible with the typewriter. Proportional fonts are widely available to average computer users. Computer-based tools such as proportional fonts, kerning, computer-based word processors, and software such as TeX allow users to arrange text in a manner previously only available to professional typesetters. The World Wide Web eliminates all repeated spaces because of the characteristics of HTML, although this can be viewed as a limitation of the underlying technology, and as such it doesn't offer the same fine-grained control of spacing as other modern software. Yet, even in the digital age, many school students are still taught to strike the space bar twice between sentences when using computers, contributing to confusion regarding sentence spacing in the 21st century.

The text editing environment in Emacs uses a double space following a period to identify the end of sentences unambiguously; the double space convention prevents confusion with periods within sentences which signify abbreviations. How Emacs recognizes the end of a sentence is controlled by the settings sentence-end-double-space and sentence-end.

Controversy

James Felici, author of the Complete Manual of Typography, says that the topic of sentence spacing is "the debate that refuses to die ... In all my years of writing about type, it's still the question I hear most often, and a search of the web will find threads galore on the subject". This subject is still widely debated today because many typists were taught to use double sentence spacing in school. As a result, there is a common belief that double sentence spacing is "correct", even given modern technology and proportional fonts. This is similar to other typewriter conventions, practiced in deference to the typewriter's "severe technical limitations", that are still used by writers. These include the use of prime marks (or "dumb quotes") for quotation marks, underlining words in place of italics, and using hyphens to approximate en and em dashes.

Many people are opposed to single sentence spacing for various reasons. Some state that the habit of double spacing is too deeply ingrained to change. Others claim that additional space between sentences makes text "look better" or easier to read. Proponents of double sentence spacing also state that some publishers may still require double spaced manuscript submissions from authors. A key example noted is the screenwriting industry's monospaced "standard" for screenplay manuscripts, Courier, 12-point font, although some works on screenwriting indicate that Courier is merely "preferred," and that proportional fonts may be used. Some reliable sources state simply that writers should follow their particular style guide, but proponents of double spacing caution that publisher's guidance takes precedence, including those that ask for double sentence spaced manuscripts.

In opposition to these ideas, many experts state that double sentence spacing was only relevant when faced with the limitations of the typewriter, and is now obsolete for most uses, especially given the capabilities of modern computers and digital fonts. While typewriter users had only two choices (to strike the space bar once or twice), modern proportional fonts allow compositors to manually adjust sentence spacing to thousandths of an inch for visually pleasing typesetting. Some sources state it is also acceptable even for monospaced fonts to be single spaced today, although other references specify double spacing for monospaced fonts. Another opinion is that as terminal punctuation marks the end of a sentence, and additional spacing is itself punctuation, additional spacing is redundant.

The double space typewriter convention was taught in schools in typing classes, and that remains the practice in many cases. Some voice concerns that students will later be forced to relearn how to type. Most style guides indicate that single sentence spacing is proper for final or published work today, and "most publishers" require manuscripts to be submitted as they will appear in publication—single sentence spaced. Writing sources typically recommend that prospective authors remove extra spaces before submitting manuscripts; although other sources state that publishers will use software to remove the spaces before final publication. Finally, some experts state that, while double spacing sentences in unpublished papers and informal use (such as e-mail) might be fine, double sentence spacing in desktop-published (DTP) works will make the final result look "unprofessional" and "foolish".

Effects on readability and legibility

Main article: Sentence spacing studies

Claims abound regarding the legibility and readability of the single and double sentence spacing methods—by proponents on both sides. Supporters of single spacing assert that familiarity with the current standard in books, magazines, and the Web enhances readability, that double spacing looks strange in text using proportional fonts, and that the "rivers" and "holes" caused by double spacing impair readability. Proponents of double sentence spacing state that the extra space between sentences enhances readability by providing breaks between sentences and makes text appear more legible.

However, typographic opinions are typically anecdotal with no basis in evidence. "Opinions are not always safe guides to legibility of print", and when direct studies are conducted, anecdotal opinions—even those of experts—can turn out to be false. Text that seems legible (visually pleasing at first glance), may be shown to actually impair reading effectiveness when subjected to scientific study.

Studies

Direct studies on sentence spacing include those by Loh, Branch, Shewanown, and Ali (2002), Clinton, Branch, Holschuh, and Shewanown (2003) and Ni, Branch and Chen (2004) with results favoring neither single, double, nor triple spacing. The 2002 study tested participants' reading speed for single and double sentence spaced passages of on-screen text. The authors stated that "the 'double space group' consistently took longer time to finish than the 'single space' group", but concluded that "there was not enough evidence to suggest that a significant difference exists". The 2003 and 2004 studies analyzed on-screen single, double, and triple spacing. In both cases, the authors stated that there was insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion. Ni, Branch, Chen, and Clinton conducted a similar study in 2009 using identical spacing variables. The authors concluded that the "results provided insufficient evidence that time and comprehension differ significantly among different conditions of spacing between sentences".

See also

• Space (punctuation)

References

Académie française (1992). Dictionnaire de l'Académie française: Tome 1, A–Enz (in French) (Neuvième ed.). Paris: Artheme Fayard. ISBN 2-7433-0407-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=830 (help)

Associated Press, ed. (2004). The Associated Press Stylebook (43rd ed.). New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01262-0.

Allen, Moira Anderson (2001). "A Quick Guide to Manuscript Format". Retrieved 25 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); External link in |author1= (help); More than one of |author1= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |comment= ignored (help)

American Medical Association (2007). AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517633-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=1032 (help)

American Political Science Association Committee on Publications (August 2006). Style Manual for Political Science (PDF). Washington, DC: American Political Science Association. ISBN 1-878147-33-1. Retrieved 14 May 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

American Psychological Association (2010). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-1-4338-0561-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=272 (help)

American Psychological Association (July 2009). "Corrections to the First Printing of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association" (PDF). American Psychological Association. Retrieved 1 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

American Psychological Association. "Corrected Sample Papers" (PDF). American Psychological Association. Retrieved 31 January. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) 2010}}

American Psychological Association (8 October 2009). "Errors in APA Style Rules, Clarifications" (PDF). Corrections to the First Printing of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition (July 2009). American Psychological Association27 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |duplicate-url= ignored (help)

American Sociological Association. American Sociological Association Style Guide (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Sociological Association. 1997. ISBN 0-912764-29-5.

Association of Legal Writing Directors (ALWD) and Darby Dickerson (2006). ALWD Citation Manual (3rd ed.). New York: Aspen Publishers. ISBN 0-7355-5571-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=608 (help)

Baugh, L. Sue (2005). Essentials of English Grammar: The Quick Guide to Good English (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-145708-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=176 (help)

Bever, Thomas G.; Jandreau, Steven; Burwell, Rebecca; et al. (1991). "Spacing Printed Text to Isolate Major Phrases Improves Readability". Visible Language. 25 (1): 75–87. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first3= (help)

Bibliographisches Institut AG (2010). "Über Duden" (in German). Retrieved 19 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Bibliographisches Institut AG (2010). "Duden – Deutsche Sprache" (in German). Retrieved 19 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Bishop, Henry Gold (1895). The Practical Printer: A Book of Instruction for Beginners; a Book of Reference for the More Advanced (3rd ed.). Albany.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Black, Allison; Watts, Darren (1993). "Proofreading Monospaced and Proportionally-spaced Typefaces". Visible Language. 27 (3): 364–377.

Bringhurst, Robert (2004). The Elements of Typographic Style (3.0 ed.). Washington and Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-206-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=352 (help)

Campbell, A.J.; Marchetti, F.M.; Mewhort, D.J.K. (1981). "Reading Speed and Text Production: A Note on Right-Justification Techniques". Ergonomics. 24 (8). Taylor & Francis: 633–640. doi:10.1080/00140138108924885.

Carrada, Luisa (2010). "Il mio scaffale: i libri più utili per lo scrittore professionale". Il Mestiere di Scrivere (in Italian). Retrieved 19 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Christian, Darrell; Jacobsen, Sally; Minthorn, David, eds. (2009). The AP [Associated Press] Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law (44th ed.). Philadelphia: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01262-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=416 (help)

Clinton, Gregory; Branch, Robert Maribe; Holschuh, D.; Shewanown, S. (2003). "Online Reading Performance Time as a Function of Text Layout: Roundtable Paper Presented at the 2003 AECT Leadership & Technology International Convention, Anaheim, Ca". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

Columbia Law Review; Harvard Law Review; University of Pennsylvania Law Review; Yale Law review, eds. (2005). The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation. Massachusetts: The Harvard Law Review Association.

Council for German Orthography. "Deutsche Rechtschreibung" [German Orthography] (PDF) (in German). Retrieved 19 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Craig, James; Scala, Irene Korol (2006). Designing With Type: The Essential Guide to Typography (5th ed.). New York: Watson-Guptill. ISBN 0-8230-1413-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=176 (help)

Cutts, Martin (2009). Oxford Guide to Plain English (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955850-6.

De Vinne, Theodore Low (1901). The Practice of Typography: Correct Composition: A Treatise on Spelling Abbreviations, the Compounding and Division of Words, the Proper Use of Figures and Numerals, Italic and Capital Letters, Notes, Etc., With Observations on Punctuation and Proof-Reading (Second ed.). New York: Century Company.

Dodd, Robin (2006). From Gutenberg to Open Type: An Illustrated History of Type from the Earliest Letterforms to the Latest Digital Fonts. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-210-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=192 (help)

Dowding, Geoffrey (1995). Finer Points in the Spacing & Arrangement of Type (Revised ed.). Vancouver, BC: Hartley & Marks Publishers. ISBN 0-88179-119-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=90 (help)

Dundurn Press in Co-operation with Public Works and the Government Services Canada Translation Bureau (1997). The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and Editing. Toronto and Oxford: J. Kirk Howard. ISBN 1-55002-276-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=312 (help)

Eckersley, Richard; Ellertson, Charles M.; Angstaldt, Richard; Hendel, Richard (1994). Glossary of Typesetting Terms. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-18371-8.

Economist (2005). The Economist Style Guide. London: Profile Books. ISBN 1-86197-916-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=256 (help)

Eijkhout, Victor (2008). TeX by Topic, A TeXnician's Reference. Lulu. pp. 185–188. ISBN 978-0-201-56882-0. Retrieved 15 March 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |urltype= ignored (help)

Einsohn, Amy (2006). The Copyeditor's Handbook: A Guide for Book Publishing and Corporate Communications (2nd ed.). Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24688-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=574 (help)

European Commission Directorate-General for Translation (April 2010). "English Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors and Translators in the European Commission" (PDF). European Commission. Retrieved 12 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Felici, James (2003). The Complete Manual of Typography. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press. ISBN 0-321-12730-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=384 (help)

Felici, James (24 August 2009). "To Double-Space or Not to Double-Space". CreativePro.com. Printingforless.com and CreativePro.com31 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Flinn, Denny Martin (1999). How Not to Write a Screenplay: 101 Common Mistakes Most Screenwriters Make. New York: Crown Publishing. ISBN 1-58065-015-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=240 (help)

Fogarty, Mignon (2008). Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing. New York: Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-8050-8831-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=240 (help)

Fogarty, Mignon (2009). The Grammar Devotional: Daily Tips for Successful Writing from Grammar Girl. New York: Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-8050-9165-6.

Fondiller, Shirley; Nerone, Barbara J. (2007). Health Professionals Style Manual. New York: Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8261-0207-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=152 (help)

Free Software Foundation (12 April 2010). "5.2 Commenting Your Work". GNU Coding Standards. Free Software Foundation17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Garner, Bryan A. (2009). Garner's Modern American Usage (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538275-4.

Garner, Bryan A. (2006). The Redbook: A Manual on Legal Style (2nd ed.). Thompson West. ISBN 978-0-314-16891-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=1008 (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Haber, Ralph Norman; Haber, Lyn R. (1981). "Visual Components of the Reading Process". Visible Language. 15 (2): 147–182.

Haley, Allan (June–July 2006). "Typographic Details". Dynamic Graphics. WebMediaBrands Inc. Retrieved 18 July 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Hart, Horace (1893). Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers: Which are to be Observed in All Cases Where No Special Instructions are Given (First ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved 24 May 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Hart, Horace (1983). "Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford" (Thirty-ninth ed.). Oxford Editorial. Retrieved 24 May 2010.

Harpel, Oscar (1870). Harpel's Typograph, or Book of Specimens Containing Useful Information, Suggestions and a Collection of Examples of Letterpress Job Printing Arranged for the Assistance of Master Printers, Amateurs, Apprentices, and Others. Cincinnati Press.

Hartley, James (1980). "Spatial Cues in Text". Visible Language. 14 (1): 62–79.

Hopper, Vincent F.; Gale, Cedric; Foote, Ronald C.; Griffith, B.W. (2004). A Pocket Guide to Correct Grammar (4th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0-7641-2690-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=208 (help)

Imprimerie nationale (1993). Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'Imprimerie nationale (in French) (3ème édition ed.). Imprimerie nationale.

Jacobi, Charles Thomas (1890). Some Notes on Books and Printing; a Guide for Authors, Publishers, & Others (New & Enlarged ed.). London: C. Wittingham.

Jury, David (2004). About Face: Reviving the Rules of Typography. Switzerland: Rotovision SA. ISBN 2-88046-798-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=159 (help)

Jury, David (2009). "What is Typography?" (PDF). Rotovision. pp. 28–87. Retrieved 31 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Kolers, Paul A.; Duchinsky, Robert; Ferguson, Dennis C. (1981). "Eye Movement Measurement of Readability of CRT Displays". Human Factors. 23 (5). The Human Factors Society: 517–527. doi:10.1177/001872088102300502. PMID 7319497.

Korpela, Jukka (3 May 2005). "Guide to the Unicode Standard". Characters and Encodings. IT and Communication17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Kouguell, Susan (2006). The Savvy Screenwriter: How to Sell Your Screenplay (and Yourself) Without Selling Out! (Revised & Expanded ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-312-35575-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=288 (help)

LeClercq, Terri (2007). Guide to Legal Writing Style (Fourth ed.). New York: Aspen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7355-6837-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=144 (help)

Leonard, Kristi; et al. (10 October 2009). "The Effects of Computer-based Text Spacing on Reading Comprehension and Reading Rate". AECT1 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

Lesina, Roberto (2009). Il Nuovo Manuale di Stile: Guida alla Redazione di Documenti, Relazioni, Articoli, Manuali, Tesi di Laurea (PDF) (in Italian) (2.0 ed.). Zanichelli. Retrieved 15 May 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Lester, Mark; Beason, Larry (2005). The McGraw Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-144133-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=304 (help)

Lloyd, John Wills; Hallahan, Dan (10 November 2009). "Where's the Evidence to Justify Two Spaces?". Spacewaste. Wordpress.com4 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Loberger, Gordon; Shoup, Kate (2009). Webster's New World English Grammar Handbook (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-470-41080-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=408 (help)

Loh, Christian Sebastian, Robert Maribe Branch, Saun Shewanown, and Radwan Ali. "The Effect of Text Spacing After the Period on Time for On-Screen Reading Tasks". IVLA Book of Selected Readings: Selected Readings of the IVLA Annual Conference. IVLA. 2002. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Lupton, Ellen (2004). Thinking with Type. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-448-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=176 (help)

Lutz, Gary; Stevenson, Diane (2005). The Writing Digest Grammar Desk Reference. Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 978-1-58297-335-7.

Lynch, Patrick J.; Horton, Sarah (2008). Web Style Guide. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13737-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=352 (help)

MacKellar, Thomas (1885). The American Printer: A Manual of Typography, Containing Practical Directions for Managing all Departments of a Printing Office, As Well as Complete Instructions for Apprentices: With Several Useful Tables, Numerous Schemes for Imposing Forms in Every Variety, Hints to Authors, Etc (Fifteenth – Revised and Enlarged ed.). Philadelphia: MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=390 (help)

Mergenthaler Linotype Company (1940). Linotype Keyboard Operation: Methods of Study and Procedures for Setting Various Kinds of Composition on the Linotype. Mergenthaler Linotype Company. ISBN B000J0N06M. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Invalid |no-pp=180 (help)

Microsoft (2010). "Italian Style Guide: Microsoft Language Excellence". Microsoft Language Portal – Style Guide Download (in Italian) (1.0 ed.). Microsoft. Retrieved 11 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Microsoft. "Character design standards (5 of 10): Space Characters for Latin 1". Microsoft Typography. Microsoft. Retrieved 16 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Modern Humanities Research Association (2002). MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses. Leeds, UK: Maney Publishing. ISBN 0-947623-62-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=92 (help)

Modern Language Association (15 January 2009). "How many spaces should I leave after a period or other concluding mark of punctuation?". Modern Language Association31 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Modern Language Association (2009). MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (7th ed.). Modern Language Association of America. ISBN 978-1-60329-024-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)

Ni, Xiaopeng; Branch, Robert Maribe; Chen, Kuan-Chung; Clinton, Gregory (2009). Sleeman, Phillip J (ed.). "The Effects of Text Spacing on Screen Reading Time and Comprehension". International Journal of Instructional Media. 36 (4).

North, A. J.; Jenkins, L. B. (1951). "Reading Speed and Comprehension as a Function of Typography". Journal of Applied Psychology. 35 (4): 225–8. doi:10.1037/h0063094. PMID 14861125.

Oxford University Press (1983). "Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford" (Thirty-ninth ed.). Oxford Editorial. Retrieved 24 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Payne, Donald R. (1967). "Readability of Typewritten Material; Proportional Versus Standard Spacing". The Journal of Typographic Research. 1 (2): 125–136.

Public Works and Government Services of Canada (2010). "The Canadian Style Online". Public Works and Government Services of Canada, The Translation Bureau, The Government of Canada's terminology and linguistic data bank TERMIUM-Plus. Retrieved 26 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Publications Office of the European Union (24 July 2008). "Interinstitutional Style Guide". Europa. European Union12 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Real Academia Española (2001). "Diccionario de la Lengua Española de la Real Academia Española". Real Academia Española. Retrieved 20 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Rhodes, John S. (13 April 1999). "One Versus Two Spaces After a Period". Webword.com21 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Ritter, R. M., ed. (2003). Oxford Style Manual. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860564-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=1033 (help)

Rollo, Lindsay (Number Two. 1993). "Words and Images in Print and on Screen" (PDF). SET: Research Information for Teachers. Retrieved 10 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)

Rosendorf, Theodore (2009). The Typographic Desk Reference (1st ed.). New Castle, Delaware. ISBN 978-1-58456-231-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=152 (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Rosendorf, Theodore (2010). "The Double Space Debate". Type Desk. Retrieved 23 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Rusch, Kristine Kathryn; Smith, Dean Wesley (1990). Science Fiction Writers of America Handbook (1990 ed.). Writers Notebook Press.

Russin, Robin U.; Downs, William M. (2003). Screenplay, Writing the Picture. Silman-James Press. ISBN 978-1-879505-70-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=483 (help)

Ryder, John (1979). The Case for Legibility. London: Bodley Head. ISBN 0-370-30158-7.

Sabin, William (1985). The Gregg Reference Manual (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-054399-2.

Sabin, William (2005). The Gregg Reference Manual (10th Spiral-bound ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-293653-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=688 (help)

Sambuchino, Chuck; The Editors of Writer's Digest Books (2009). Formatting and Submitting your Manuscript (3rd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 978-1-58297-571-9. {{cite book}}: |last2= has generic name (help); Invalid |no-pp=324 (help)

Scales, Alice Y. (2002). "Improving Instructional Materials by Improving Document Formatting" (PDF). ASEE Southeast Section Conference. Retrieved 10 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Schriver, Karen A. (1997). Dynamics in Document Design. New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, Weinheim: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-30636-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=592 (help)

Sheerin, Peter K. (19 October 2001). "The Trouble With EM 'n EN (and Other Shady Characters)". A List Apart. A List Apart Magazine17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Shushan, Ronnie; Wright, Don (1989). Desktop Publishing by Design. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-55615-134-9.

Smith, Laurie (8 July 2009). "Don't Date Yourself by Using Two Spaces after a Period in Your Resume!". Executive Resumes and Career Transition Strategies: Reflections of an Executive Resume Writer. Creative Keystrokes Executive Resume Service30 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Spiekermann, Erik; Ginger, E.M. (1993). Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works. Mountain View, CA: Adobe Press. ISBN 0-672-48543-5.

Squire, Victoria; Willberg, Hans Peter; Forsmann, Friedrich (2006). Getting it Right with Type. London: Laurence King Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85669-474-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=176 (help)

Stevenson, Jay (2005). The Pocket Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Punctuation: A Handy Reference to Resolve All Your Grammatical Problems. Alpha Books. ISBN 978-1-59257-393-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=208 (help)

Straus, Jane (2009). The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes (10th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-0-470-22268-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=176 (help)

Strizver, Ilene. "Double Spaces Between Sentences ... Not!". U&lc: Upper and Lowercase Magazine Online: Issue 41.1.1. International Typeface Organization and Monotype Imaging. Retrieved 31 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Strizver, Ilene (2010). Type Rules: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470542512. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)

Strumpf, Michael; Douglas, Auriel (2004). The Grammar Bible. New York: Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-8050-7560-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=512 (help)

Strunk, William; White, E.B. (2008). The Elements of Style (50th Anniversary ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-0-205-63264-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=128 (help)

Style Manual Committee Council of Science Editors (2006). Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (Seventh ed.). Reston, VA: The Council. ISBN 0-9779665-0-X. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help); Invalid |no-pp=658 (help)

Taggart, Caroline (2009). My Grammar and I: Or Should that be "Me"?. London: JA Wines. ISBN 978-1-60652-026-0.

Tinker, Miles A. (1963). Legibility of Print. Iowa: Iowa State University Press. ISBN 0-8138-2450-8.

Tinker, Miles A. (2 April 2010). "Experimental Studies on the Legibility of Print: An Annotated Bibliography". Reading Research Quarterly. 1 (4). International Reading Association: 67–118. JSTOR 747222. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Trottier, David (2005). The Screenwriter's Bible: A Complete Guide to Writing, Formatting, and Selling Your Script (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Silman James Press. ISBN 1-879505-84-3.

Truss, Lynn (2004). Eats, Shoot & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation. New York: Gotham Books. p. 25. ISBN 1-592-40087-6.

Turabian, Kate L. (2007). Booth, Wayne C.; Colomb, Gregory G.; Williams, Joseph M. (eds.). A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (7th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-82337-9.

Unicode (2009). "Unicode Standard Annex #14: Unicode Line Breaking Algorithm". Unicode Technical Reports. Unicode. Retrieved 17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

United States. (23 April 20094 February 2010). "U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual". {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

United States Navy. "U.S. Navy Style Guide "Punctuation"". Retrieved 17 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

University of Chicago Press (1911). Manual of Style: A Compilation of Typographical Rules Governing the Publications of the University of Chicago, with Specimens of Types Used at the University Press (Third ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago. ISBN 1-145-26446-8.

University of Chicago Press (1969). The Chicago Manual of Style: For Authors, Editors, and Copywriters (12th Revised ed.). Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-77008-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |comment= ignored (help)

University of Chicago Press (2003). The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers (15th ed.). Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-10403-6.

University of Chicago Press (2007). "One Space or Two?". Chicago Manual of Style Online. University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 8 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Invalid |no-pp=984 (help)

University of Chicago Press (2010). The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers (16th ed.). Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-10420-1.

Walsh, Bill (2004). The Elephants of Style: A Trunkload of Tips on the Big Issues and Gray Areas of Contemporary American English. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142268-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=238 (help)

W3C (24 December 1999). "9.1 White Space". HTML 4.01 Coding Specification. W3C17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

W3C (24 December 1999). "24.4 Character Entity References for Markup-Significant and Internationalization characters". HTML 4.01 Coding Specification. W3C17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

Weiderkehr, Sarah (30 July 2009). "On Two Spaces Following a Period". American Psychological Association29 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Wershler-Henry, Darren (2005). The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting. Ithica and London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4586-6.

Wheildon, Colin (1995). Type and Layout: How Typography and Design Can Get your Message Across – Or Get in the Way. Berkeley: Strathmoor Press. ISBN 0-9624891-5-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=248 (help)

Wiley, John, & Sons Australia (2007). Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons Australia. ISBN 978-0-7016-3648-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Williams, Robin (1995). The PC is Not a Typewriter (1st ed.). Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press. ISBN 978-0-938151-49-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=96 (help)

Williams, Robin (1995). "Thirteen Telltale Signs" (PDF). Adobe Magazine. Adobe. Retrieved 10 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Williams, Robin (2003). The Mac is Not a Typewriter: A Style Manual for Creating Professional-level Type on Your Macintosh (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press. ISBN 0-201-78263-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |no-pp=96 (help)

Further reading

• "Writing Tips: Spacing (1)". Writer's Block. NIVA Inc. May 2009. ISSN 1488-4801.
• "Writing Tips: Spacing (2)". Writer's Block. NIVA Inc. June 2009. ISSN 1488-4801.

External links

• Typophile (2011). "Double-spacing After Periods". Typophile. Punchcut.
• Rhodes, John S. (13 May 1999). "One Versus Two Spaces After a Period". WebWord.com. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Farhad Manjoo (13 January 2011). "Space Invaders: Why You Should Never, Ever Use Two Spaces After a Period". Slate.com. Washington Post.
• Megan McArdle (14 January 2011). "You Can Have My Double Space When You Pry it From My Cold, Dead Hands". Atlantic. Atlantic Monthly.

Category:Punctuation Category:Typography Category:Whitespace