User:Ac1399/sandbox

Parasocial Breakups

Parasocial Breakup describes the emotional turmoil experienced when a one-sided psychological relationship with a media

The term "parasocial breakup" was first introduced by Jonathan Cohen in his 2003 study.

personality, fictional character, or online figure ends. These relationships, though not reciprocated, are perceived as meaningful and intimate by the individual. The concept was first explored by Eyal and Cohen (2006) [1] in the context of viewers’ emotional bonds with characters from the TV show Friends. Research has shown that parasocial breakups can evoke emotional distress comparable to losing a real-life friend or partner (Eyal & Cohen, 2006).

The consequences of such breakups can be significant, including increased aggression, self-harm tendencies, unrealistic life expectations, and diminished ability to form meaningful real-world connections (Derrick et al., 2008) [2] . The phenomenon highlights how deeply individuals can connect with public figures or fictional characters, even without direct interaction.

Social media and widespread internet accessibility have amplified these experiences. Platforms like YouTube, Instagram, and Twitter allow for more intimate and frequent interactions with media personalities, often fostering a sense of personal connection. These relationships are more complicated in young adults/children, experiencing it for the first time. As a result, the dissolution of these parasocial relationships can feel even more devastating (Rihl & Wegener, 2019) [3] . Scholars have noted that this growing phenomenon highlights the psychological impact of media consumption in modern society where internet is easily accessible from a young age.

Eyal and Cohen, examined responses to the end of the television series Friends, and define it as a parasocial breakup

Parasocial Relationships

Parasocial Relationships are one-sided emotional connections that individuals form with media personalities, fictional characters, or online influencers. These relationships, while not reciprocated, can feel deeply personal and fulfilling, often mimicking the dynamics of real-world friendships or romantic relationships. First introduced by Horton and Wohl (1956) [4] , the concept highlights how audiences develop a sense of intimacy and familiarity with figures they frequently see on television, social media, or other platforms. Unlike traditional social relationships, parasocial relationships require no direct interaction, yet they evoke genuine emotional investment and attachment.

Such relationships are increasingly common in the digital age, where content creators engage their audiences through interactive mediums like live streams, personalised messages, and behind-the-scenes glimpses into their lives. This heightened accessibility fosters a sense of closeness, blurring the lines between public persona and personal connection. While parasocial relationships can provide comfort, entertainment, and a sense of belonging, they also carry potential risks, including emotional dependency, unrealistic expectations, and difficulty distinguishing media portrayals from reality (Tukachinsky & Stever, 2019) [5] . These relationships form the foundation for parasocial breakups, which occur when the perceived bond is severed, leading to emotional distress.

History of Parasocial Breakups

The terms "dissolution" and "breakup" have been used interchangeably in the context of parasocial relationships. However, the concept of "breakup" may be broader and more flexible than initially suggested by Eyal and Cohen (2006). Cohen (2006) employed both terms in an earlier investigation of parasocial breakups, proposing that such breakups might encompass not only relationships that are actively terminated but also those that fade or dissipate passively over time.

This perspective may hold particular relevance for children, who can experience parasocial breakups for reasons extending beyond the departure of an actor or the cancellation of a television series, which were often emphasised on as the main reason in earlier theories. Children's parasocial breakups may arise from various circumstances, reflecting the unique ways in which they form and lose connections with media figures.

fictional characters perceived as real, resulting in one-sided bonds

Impact of Parasocial Breakup

Changes in Behaviour and Eating Patterns  

Research has demonstrated that parasocial breakup can influence children’s behaviours, including their eating habits. For instance, Elmo, a popular Sesame Street character, has been shown to alter children’s food preferences, encouraging healthier choices in some contexts (Cole, Kotler, & Pai, 2010) (Bond & Calvert, 2014) [6] [7] . The severing of such relationships can disrupt learned behaviours, potentially leading to shifts in established patterns or routines.  

Aggressive Tendencies

Parasocial breakups can provoke aggressive tendencies in certain individuals, especially when attachment to media figures is intense. Eyal and Rubin (2003) [8] examined aggression within parasocial relationships using social cognitive theory, which emphasises observational learning and imitation. Their research highlighted how viewers’ identification with characters and interactions through parasocial means can reinforce aggressive behaviour patterns. Building on Bandura’s (1977) [9] work on behavioural changes, the study demonstrated how media-driven relationships could influence viewers' emotional responses, including heightened aggression during the breakup process.  

The emotional distress caused by the dissolution of a parasocial relationship can be profound, often leaving individuals struggling with its effects for extended periods.

Self-Harm and Mental Health Risks  

The emotional distress caused by parasocial breakups can sometimes lead to self-harm or other dangerous behaviours. McCutcheon et al. (2021) [10] explored how the dissolution of parasocial relationships, particularly those involving celebrity worship, can exacerbate negative emotions and stress. Factors such as social media addiction, cyber-violence, and fandom-related conflicts can damage personal well-being, potentially resulting in self-harm or suicide attempts (Liu et al., 2022) [11] . These outcomes suggest the significant psychological toll of losing a parasocial connection, particularly when fans are deeply invested.  

Difficulty Forming Real-Life Connections  

Parasocial breakups can impair an individual's ability to form or maintain real-life relationships. The intense focus on a parasocial bond may overshadow opportunities for real-world interactions, leaving individuals socially isolated. This loss of social connection can hinder emotional development and lead to feelings of loneliness, further compounding the psychological impact of the breakup.

Case Studies

Keren Eyal and Jonathan Cohen (2006) conducted a study exploring viewers' reactions to parasocial breakups with media characters, using theories from interpersonal and mass communication. After the final episode of the TV Show Friends, 279 students completed surveys on their viewing habits, attachment to the show, favourite characters, and loneliness. The study found that the strength of the parasocial bond with a favorite character was the strongest predictor of distress following the show's conclusion. Other factors, such as commitment to the show, the character's perceived popularity, and the viewer's loneliness, also influenced distress levels. The findings highlight parallels and distinctions between parasocial and social relationships.

Another research by (Montes De Oca, 2015) [12], talking about parasocial breakups, and parasocial grief, analyzed tweets about the death of a central character in Grey’s Anatomy. A theory-driven thematic analysis identified five key themes: emotional grief, coping strategies, advocacy, reluctance to continue watching, and memorializing, each with varying intensity among fans. The findings reveal unique fan responses to parasocial breakups, particularly parasocial deaths, not previously explored in research. The study highlighted how these experiences profoundly affected the fans, even disrupting their daily lives, and emphasised on the need for further investigation into the emotional impact of such parasocial losses.

Cohen (2004) [13] conducted a study exploring how television viewers respond to the potential removal of their favorite TV characters. A total of 381 Israeli adults participated by completing questionnaires that assessed their connections to their favourite characters, their anticipated reactions if those characters were taken off the air, and their attachment styles. The findings revealed that viewers predicted negative emotional responses akin to those experienced during the end of real-life social relationships. These reactions were influenced by the strength of the parasocial bond with the character and the viewers' attachment style. Participants with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style expected the most intense negative reactions. The study's findings contribute to attachment theory and highlight the parallels between parasocial and close personal relationships.

Fan Breakup

Renouncing fan-ship (Fan Breakup) refers to the psychological process through which individuals distance themselves from their admiration of a celebrity or idol. This process, as described by He and Sun (2022) [14] , consists of three phases: acute stress, bargaining, and attachment reconstruction.

In the acute stress phase, fans experience heightened sensitivity to negative information about their idol. This often leads to either denial and avoidance of the distressing facts or an intense effort to seek further details to reconcile their beliefs. The initial dissonance can cause significant psychological stress.

The bargaining phase involves negotiating the conflict between fans’ core belief systems and the negative revelations. He and Sun (2022) identified four challenges fans face in this stage: cognitive dissonance, emotional attachment, behavioural dependence, and fear of social judgment. Fans work to cognitively and emotionally adjust their perspectives to restore balance.

The final phase, attachment reconstruction, is marked by recovery and the reestablishment of psychological and social stability. Fans gradually adapt, revising their beliefs and regaining normal functioning in their daily lives.

He and Sun’s (2022) [15] study highlights the emotional and cognitive complexities of renouncing fan-ship, offering valuable insights into fandom’s impact on identity and belief systems.

Further Research

Parasocial breakups represent a growing and significant area of research within the fields of media psychology and social behaviour. These breakups occur when individuals experience the loss or perceived end of one-sided relationships with media figures, such as celebrities, influencers, or fictional characters. While initial studies have explored how people process and cope with these breakups, there remains a need for broader research that accounts for diverse populations, cultural variations, and evolving media ecosystems.

One key limitation in current research is its reliance on self-reported data, which can be affected by biases such as social desirability, memory inaccuracies, and the tendency for participants to present themselves in a favourable light. These factors can obscure the understanding of genuine emotions and behaviors during parasocial breakups. Future research could incorporate a mixed-method approach, using objective tools like physiological monitoring, behavioral observations, and digital interaction analytics, to provide a more nuanced and accurate depiction of these experiences.

The role of digital environments and emerging media platforms in shaping parasocial relationships also warrants deeper investigation. As media becomes more interactive and accessible, these relationships are evolving, with individuals engaging directly with their favorite public figures through social media. This increased accessibility can intensify the emotional investment in parasocial relationships and complicate the experience of parasocial breakups. Moreover, the rise of online fandoms, collective fan behavior, and group dynamics introduces new dimensions to these phenomena, including communal grief, trolling, bullying, and even stalking. Research into these collective dynamics is essential to understand their social and psychological consequences.

In the context of younger generations, the impact of parasocial relationships is particularly pronounced. Children and adolescents, who are increasingly exposed to media at earlier ages, may find it difficult to distinguish between real-life interpersonal relationships and parasocial ones. Studies, such as those by Spitzberg and Cupach (2024) [16] , suggest that this confusion can lead to emotional turmoil when these relationships dissolve, particularly for individuals experiencing early relationships for the first time. This highlights the need for careful regulation of internet use, with parental supervision and education playing a critical role in fostering healthy interactions with media.

The increasing prevalence of parasocial relationships in a digitally connected world accentuates the importance of further research into their psychological, social, and cultural implications. Addressing these gaps will enable the development of more comprehensive frameworks to understand and mitigate the challenges associated with parasocial breakups, ultimately promoting healthier and more balanced interactions in a media-saturated society.

References

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review.

Bond, B. J., & Calvert, S. L. (2014). Parasocial Breakup Among Young Children in the United States. Journal of Children and Media, 8(4), 474–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2014.953559

Cohen, J. (2004). Parasocial Break-Up from Favorite Television Characters: The Role of Attachment Styles and Relationship Intensity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21(2), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407504041374

Cole, C. F., Kotler, J., & Pai, S. (2009). “Happy Healthy Muppets”: A Look at Sesame Workshop’s Health Initiatives Around the World. Igniting the Power of Community, 277–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-98157-4_16

Derrick, J. L., Gabriel, S., & Tippin, B. (2008). Parasocial relationships and self-discrepancies: Faux relationships have benefits for low self-esteem individuals. Personal Relationships, 15(2), 261–280. https://www.academia.edu/1082029/Parasocial_relationships_and_self_discrepancies_Faux_relationships_have_benefits_for_low_self_esteem_individuals

Eyal, K., & Cohen, J. (2006). When Good Friends Say Goodbye: A Parasocial Breakup Study. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 50(3), 502–523. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem5003_9

Eyal, K., & Rubin, A. M. (2003). Viewer Aggression and Homophily, Identification, and Parasocial Relationships With Television Characters. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(1), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4701_5

Flannery, H. (2023). An Analysis of the Catalysts of Parasocial Breakups. Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Capstones. https://scholarworks.bellarmine.edu/tdc/157/

He, Y., & Sun, Y. (2022). Breaking up with my idol: A qualitative study of the psychological adaptation process of renouncing fanship. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1030470

Horton, D., & Wohl, R. (1956). Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance. Psychiatry, 19(3), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049

Kretz, V. E. (2020). McDreamy is McDead: Fan responses to a parasocial break-up. Journal of Fandom Studies, 8(2), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1386/jfs_00014_1

Liu, W., Wang, Z., Jian, L., & Sun, Z. (2023). How broadcasters’ Characteristics Affect viewers’ loyalty: the Role of Parasocial Relationships. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 36(1). https://doi.org/10.1108/apjml-10-2022-0856

McCutcheon, L. E., & Aruguete, M. S. (2021). Is celebrity worship increasing over time. Journal of Studies in Social Sciences and Humanities, 7(1), 66-75.

Montes De Oca, S. (2015). “Breaking Up Is Hard To Do”: An Analysis of Parasocial Relationships and Breakups Among “How I Met Your Mother” Viewers. UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. https://doi.org/10.34917/7645979

Rihl, A., & Wegener, C. (2017). YouTube celebrities and parasocial interaction. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 25(3), 135485651773697. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856517736976

Spitzberg, B., & Cupach , W. (2024). Stalking, Threatening, and Attacking Public Figures. Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2ODOTxgmJgEC&oi=fnd&pg=PA287&dq=fan+stalking+&ots=aZn83NCS70&sig=Y6dQnhv5KiZ7yPUlRRUx5ec02yw

Tukachinsky, R., & Stever, G. (2019). Theorizing development of parasocial engagement. Communication Theory, 29(3), 297-318.