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Rakhine people

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Rakhine people
ရခိုင်လူမျိုး (Rakhine)
A Rakhine girl tosses water at revellers during the Thingyan.
Regions with significant populations
 Myanmar3,100,00 (2014)[1]
 India50,000[citation needed]
 Bangladesh11,195[2][3]
Languages
Rakhine, Burmese
Religion
Theravada Buddhism
Related ethnic groups

The Rakhine (Burmese and Rakhine: ရခိုင်လူမျိုး) or Arakanese are a Southeast Asian ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma) forming the majority along the coastal region of present-day Rakhine State (formerly called Arakan), although Rakhine communities also exist throughout the country, particularly in the Ayeyarwady and Yangon Regions. They constitute approximately 4.61% or more of Myanmar's total population.[4] Rakhine communities also exist in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts and India's Northeastern states, where they are known as the Marma and Magh peoples respectively.[5]

Rakhine people consist of seven different ethnic groups, namely Rakhine, Kamein, Kwe Myi, Daingnet people, Maramagyi, Mru people and Thet.  Among them, Rakhine group are the majority ethnic group in Rakhine State and have long been influenced by their proximity to India and have formed trading links with the sub-continents. Thet, Kamein, Daingnet and Marma people are the minority ethnic groups and they live in the hills.

The Arakanese are predominantly Theravada Buddhist. Their language has some similarities with Burmese language and also very similar to Burma in culture and traditional dress.[6] They have developed their own kingdoms, dynasties, scripts, coins, costumes, culture, and dialects, showcasing a rich and distinct heritage. They also have their own ethnic armed group in Myanmar's Rakhine State known as the Arakan Army.[7]

Marma Dance of Bangladesh

The Rakhine people have a variety of appearances, showing a mix of traits from both South Asian and Mongoloid backgrounds. They have range of skin tones, typically ranging from light to medium brown. Rakhine men mostly wear a sarong called lungyi, while the women also wear a sarong called thabein..The Rakhine people celebrate several key festivals including Sangrain and Buddha Purnima.[8]

Ethnonyms

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"Rakhine" (less commonly spelt Rakhaing) is the contemporary ethnonym and name of the region in Rakhine, Burmese, and English today.[9] The word is extant to the mid-11th century, appearing on a pillar inscription at Shite-thaung Temple, and also appears in European, Persian, and Ceylonese accounts by the 15th century.[9]

The term Rakhine may have come from the Pali word "Rakkhapura" from "Rakkhita" meaning the land of the people of Rakhasa (Rakhasa > Rakkha > Rakkhaing > Rakhaing) who were given this name in honor of their preservation of their national heritage and ethics or morality. The word Rakhine means, "one who maintains his own race." In the Rakhine language, the land is called Rakhinepray, the ethnic Rakhine are called Rakhinetha.[10]

U Kala's Maha Yazawin traces the word's etymology to Alaungsithu's conquest of the region during the Pagan era, but epigraphic evidence to support the underlying theory remains scant.[9] Arthur Phayre traces the etymology to the Sanskrit or Pali words for 'monster' or 'demon' (rākṣasa and rakkhasa) respectively, which is more likely.[9][11] Some Rakhine inhabitants now prefer the alternative spelling of ရက္ခိုင်.[12]

Between the 17th and 18th centuries, the Rakhine began calling themselves Mranma (မြန်မာ) and its derivatives, as attested by texts like the Rakhine Minrazagri Ayedaw Sadan and the Dhanyawaddy Ayedawbon.[13][9] The word, which is also cognate with Bamar and is the Rakhine pronunciation of "Myanmar," continues to be used by their descendants in Bangladesh, who are known as the Marma.[13] By this period, the Bamar began to call the Rakhine the Myanmagyi (မြန်မာကြီး; lit. 'great Mranma / Myanma'), as attested by contemporaneous Burmese and foreign sources.[13] The ethnonym reflected their common ancestral kinship ties with the Buddhist-professing Bamar, with whom the Rakhine identified.[13]

By 1585, European, Persian, and Bengali accounts began describing the Rakhine and Buddhist groups like Barua people as the Magh and its derivatives (e.g., Mogh, Mugh, Mog, etc.).[9] The word's etymology is likely to derive from Magadha, the name of an ancient Buddhist kingdom.[13] By the late 19th century, British authorities adopted the ethnonym Arakanese. After 1991, the Burmese government changed the official English name of the ethnic group to Rakhine, as part of a broader effort to indigenize the country's English ethnonyms and place names.[14][15]

History of Rakhine

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See also: History of Rakhine and Rakhine State

The Rakhine State, also known as Arakan, in Myanmar is the home to the Rakhine people. The history of Rakhine is divided into seven parts - the independent kingdoms of Dhanyawadi, Waithali, Lemro, Mrauk U, Burmese occupation from 1785 to 1826, British rule from 1826 to 1948 and as a part of independent Burma from 1948.[16]

Dhanyawadi is considered the first Kingdom of Arakan. Established around the 1st century CE, it served as a significant cultural and political center in the region. The kingdom is known for its flourishing trade, connecting Southeast Asia with the Indian subcontinent. Dhanyawadi's influence laid the groundwork for subsequent kingdoms in Arakan, contributing to the development of its unique cultural identity, which blends various influences from neighboring regions. The remnants of Dhanyawadi's architecture and artifacts offer insights into the early history and society of Arakan.[17]

King Min Hti is one of the famous Arakan king known for being the longest reigning monarch in the whole world history, although the exact length of his reign is unknown. It is known that he ruled the Launggyet Dynasty of Arakan from c. 1279 to 1373/74.[18]

All the Arakan kingdoms has always been predominantly Buddhist, with the majority known today as the Rakhine people. Although some of the kings had Muslim titles (nicknames) during the Kingdom of Mrauk U, as it was under Bengal Sultanate influence, none of them adopted the religion; they remained as Buddhists.[19]

Min Razagyi, Raza II of Mrauk-U မင်းရာဇာကြီး

The Kingdom of Mrauk U was the largest kingdom of the Arakan (Rakhine) Kingdom, encompassing the Chittagong region of Bangladesh and the Rakhine State of Myanmar. Arakanese chronicle records that more than six million shrines and pagodas flourished in Mrauk-U. A British archaeologist, Emil Forchhammer noted that "in durability, architectural skill, and ornamentation the Mrauk-U temples far surpass those on the banks of Irrawaddy." Illustrative examples of Mrauk U period architecture include the Shite-thaung and Htukkanthein Temples.[20]

The Arakan king Min Razagyi (1593–1612) conquered the areas and styled himself as the highest and most powerful king of Arakan, Chacomas, and Bengal in a 1607 letter to Portuguese mercenary Filipe de Brito e Nicote.

Min Bin, depicted as a god, in the Shitthaung Temple, Mrauk U

In 1546 CE, while the Arakanese king Min Bin was fighting a battle with the Burmese, the Sak king attacked Northern Arakan Roma and occupied the Arakanese-controlled Chacomas of the Northern Arakan Mountains. After his initial military successes against Bengal and Tripura (1532–34), Min Bin began to regard himself "as a world conqueror or cakravartin", and in commemoration of his victory in Bengal he built the Shitthaung Temple, one of the premier Buddhist Pagodas of Mrauk-U. His expansionist drive was to run into serious obstacles however. His control of Bengal beyond Chittagong was largely nominal and he, like the sultans of Bengal before him, never solved Tripuri raids into Bengal. Moreover, his interference in Lower Burma (1542) against Toungoo provoked Toungoo invasions in (1545–47) that nearly toppled his regime. He survived the invasions and later provided military aid to Ava, hoping to stop Toungoo's advance into Upper Burma. Historically, all Rakhine monarchs practiced Buddhism.[21]

Ancestral origins

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See also: Arakan
The pagodas at Mrauk-U pagodas are part of modern-day Rakhine identity.
Group of Bandarban Marmas with Bohmong in centre, c. 1906

Arakanese legends and some Rakhine people claim that they are Aryans came from Shakya in India. On the other hand, they might be mixed with Indo-Aryans and Tibeto-Burman. Kanyans of Irrawaddy Valley with later integrated into Arakanese race. Rakhine and Burmese are very closely related languages, which both descend from Old Burmese. 3000 or 2800 years ago, The Chandra dynasty that ruled Dhanyawadi and Waithali was more likely Indo-Aryan in origin. Arakanese legends claim that the Unknown ethnic are founder of Dhanyawadi. Now they are mixed with Rakhine people.[22][23]

By the 9th century Rakhine people have founded Le-Mro, Le-Mro in the Rakhine language means "four cities," which refers to the four ancient Rakhine cities. In 1103, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until 1167. In 1406–1429, Kingdom of Ava occupied the Northern Rakhine. Southern Rakhine was not occupied by the Bagan Empire and the Ava Kingdom. In 1429, founder of Kingdom of Mrauk U, the king Min Saw Mon reclaimed the Arakanese throne with the help of the Bengal, and ruled the kingdom. But as a vassal of Bengal 1429 to 1430.[22] Rakhine oral traditions and written records also describe several alternative origin myths, including one that traces the Rakhine back to an intermarriage between a highland Mro and a lowland queen, and another that traces the ancestry of Rakhine monarchs back to Mahasammata, the legendary first monarch of the world.[24]

Rakhine drummers at Thingyan (Burmese New Year Festival), in New York City

After the Kingdom of Mrauk U was annexed by the Konbaung Kingdom in 1784, Rakhine refugees began settling in Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali District. The British colonial officer of the East India Trading Company, Captain Hiram Cox, was given the task of providing land to the refugees in 1799. An estimated 100,000 refugees were settled in Cox's Bazar, Chittagong Hill Tracts, and Patuakhali by the East India Company government.[25] They settled in Patuakhali District and Barguna District in the 19th century.[26] Rakhine descendants spread as far north as Tripura state in India, where they are known as the Mog.

Genetic studies

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It can be difficult to distinguish a Rakhine person from a Bamar person, the predominant ethnic group in Myanmar, based solely on physical appearance, unless the individual is wearing traditional Rakhine clothing or speaking the Rakhine language. The Rakhine language is part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and shares a close relationship with the Burmese language. Among the various Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in the country, Rakhine stands out for its strong similarity to Burmese. Some experts contend that the Rakhine language itself might be just a dialect of Burmese. The Rakhine have embraced Buddhism since the era of The Buddha.[27]

Genetic analysis of the Rakhine population in Bangladesh based on 17 Y-chromosomal STR loci revealed 157 unique haplotypes with a discrimination capacity of 0.723. Phylogenetic studies show that the Rakhine are genetically closer to East Asian populations, particularly Koreans and Japanese, indicating shared ancestral links. Although some Rakhines display a notable range of physical appearances, featuring both South Asian and South East Asians. Despite this diversity, all identify as Rakhine, a community comprising seven ethnic groups.[28]

In conclusion, Rakhine population shows some genetic similarities to East Asian groups, especially in terms of certain Y-chromosomal markers, although this does not necessarily reflect all aspects of their physical appearance. Their skin tone aligns more with southeast Asian populations, which often have medium to darker brown skin. Therefore, while their genetic links may be closer to East Asians, their physical appearance is more of a typical mixture of South Asia and Southeast Asian groups. Their names are typically in Rakhine, resembling Burmese names.[29][30]

Political Parties and Armed Groups

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Young Rakhine Army Troops
Main articles: Arakan Army, United League of Arakan, and Arakan Front Party

There are a number of key political parties and armed groups representing the Rakhine Buddhist people in Myanmar, advocating for the preservation of their cultural identity, autonomy, and political rights within the country's diverse and complex ethnic landscape.

The key political parties associated with the Rakhine people include the Arakan National Party (ANP), Arakan League for Democracy (ALD), Arakan Front Party (AFP), Arakan National Council (ANC), United League of Arakan (ULA) and the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP). All of these parties commonly advocate for the rights and interests of the Rakhine ethnic group. Among these parties, some, like the ANP, AFP, and RNDP, are accused of anti-Rohingya, Islamophobia, and promoting hardline ethnic nationalism and ultranationalism.[31][32]

There are also ethnic armed organizations associated with the Rakhine people which includes the Arakan Army (AA), Arakan Liberation Army (ALA), Arakan Independence Alliance (AIA), and the Arakan Army in Kayin State. These groups aim to secure greater autonomy and self-determination for the Rakhine people in Myanmar's diverse regions.[33]

Arakan Army

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The most notable ethnic armed organisation among the Rakhine People and rebel groups in Myanmar is the Arakan Army. Founded in April 2009, the AA is the military wing of the United League of Arakan (ULA). It is currently led by Commander-in-Chief Major General Twan Mrat Naing and vice deputy commander-in-chief Brigadier General Nyo Twan Awng. The Arakan Army states that the objective of its armed revolution is to restore the sovereignty of the Arakan people.[34] It was declared a terrorist organization in 2020 by Myanmar, and again by the State Administration Council junta in 2024.

The ideology of the Arakan Army is centered on the following:

  • Arakanese Nationalism: A focus on promoting and preserving the identity and culture of the Arakanese people.
  • Arakanese Self-Determination: Advocacy for the right of the Arakanese to govern themselves and make decisions about their own political future.
  • Confederalism: Support for a confederal system that allows for greater autonomy and self-governance within a broader political framework.
Flag of the Arakan Army
Location of Rakhine

The Rakhine Army has significantly challenged the Burmese junta's military might, often achieving surprising victories that showcase its strength and strategic prowess.

With a focus on defending their homeland and securing rights for the Rakhine people, the Arakan Army has garnered considerable support among local populations. Their success against the junta not only boosts their reputation but also inspires other ethnic groups in Myanmar, as the AA continues to assert its influence and military strength in the ongoing struggle for autonomy and justice.

Rakhine in Bangladesh and India

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Rakhine people share some historical and cultural similarities with several Northeastern Indian & Bangladesh tribes, particularly those in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Mizoram, and Manipur. Communities like the Marma people of Rakhine have cultural parallels with the Chakma and Tripuri tribes in India, sharing similar traditions in attire, festivals, and cuisine. Historically, trade and migration between the Rakhine State and northeastern India further strengthened these ties, with exchanges of goods and cultural practices. These shared cultural elements reflect the deep-rooted connections between the Rakhine and northeastern Indian tribes.

Rangkut Banashrama Buddhist Monastery in Cox Bazar founded by Emperor Ashoka[35]

Bangladesh

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According to the 2022 census, there are about 11,195 Rakhines living in Bangladesh.[36] Outside of Myanmar, a sizable Rakhine community exists in the southeast districts of Bangladesh, namely in Khagrachhari, Rangamati, Bandarban and southern Cox's Bazar, with the Mong circle in Khagrachari having administrative duties. There is a small community of Rakhine people inhabiting the coastal areas of Patuakhali, Borguna and Cox's Bazar, having migrated to Bangladesh from Myanmar before the formation of these two contemporary countries. The total population of the community as of 2020 is 16,000.[37] But according to the Joshua Project, the total population is 20,000.[38] The Rakhine people and the local Bengali population developed a unique dialect through which they could communicate. The Rakhine people were able to preserve their culture, language, and religion in Bengal. Rakhines observe Rakhine festival such as Sanggreng and Nai-chai ka.[25] The last Rakhine language school in Kuakata closed in 1998 due to shortage of funds, In January 2006, Chin Than Monjur, opened a Rakhine language community school which expanded into three news schools and used Rakhine language books from Myanmar. The schools were forced to close due to shortage of funds.[39] In summary, the Rakhine people mainly resides in Cox's Bazar and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. Their presence reflects a rich culture but also highlights the challenges they face, such as issues with identity.

The Rakhine community also resides in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, including Bandarban, Khagrachari, and Rangamati.

India

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A small population of Rakhine people, including Barua, Magh, and Marma, exists in India, primarily in the state of West Bengal and Northeastern parts. These communities are believed to have migrated from Myanmar's Rakhine State and are predominantly Theravada Buddhists. The Barua and Magh communities in India are officially recognized as Scheduled Tribes (ST), and they have integrated into local society while preserving aspects of their distinct identity. Despite their small presence, these communities continue to contribute to the cultural diversity of India.

In November 2017, over 1,500 Rakhine Buddhists crossed into Mizoram due to clashes between the Arakan Army and Myanmar's military. While Mizoram has been supportive of refugees with shared ethnic ties, the influx of Rakhine Buddhists presented a different scenario, highlighting the nuanced nature of Mizo-Rakhine relations.[40][41]

Persecution

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The 150-year old Khaddya Song Chansai Rakhine cemetery in Taltali Upazila, Barguna District of Bangladesh was forcefully taken by local land grabbers in 2017. The Rakhine population in the Barguna and Patuakhali Districts decreased by 95%, from 50,000 in the 20th century to 2,561 in 2014, with Rakhines leaving Bangladesh due to illegal land-grabbing and persecution. Lands owned by them in the districts decreased by 81%.[42][43] Rakhine land is also being taken over by politicians in Patuakhali District.[44][45] Recognizing their situation is important for promoting their rights and improving their lives.

Culture

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Marma girls at Sangrai (Marma new year celebration in Bangladesh)
Rakhine script at a Bangladeshi Buddhist pagoda

The Rakhine are one of the four main Buddhist ethnic groups of Burma (the others being the Burman, Shan and Mon people). Rakhine culture is similar to the mainstream Burmese culture but with more Indian influence, likely due to its geographical isolation from the Burmese mainland divided by the Arakan Mountains and its closer proximity to India. Traces of Indian influence remain in many aspects of Arakanese culture, including its literature, music, and cuisine. The traditional Rakhine kyin wrestling also plays an important role in its culture. Rakhine mont di, consisting of rice vermicelli noodles, is popular across Myanmar.

They have a rich cultural heritage that reflects their history, beliefs, and way of life. Despite facing challenges, including political and social strife, they continue to celebrate and preserve their rich cultural heritage, contributing to the diversity of Myanmar.

Religion

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Almost all Rakhine people are followers of Theravada Buddhism. Rakhine State is also home to many Buddhist temples, reflecting the region's strong spiritual heritage.

Buddhism in Rakhine is characterized by its rich history, unique interpretations, and a blend of local customs, reflecting the region's diverse cultural heritage.

Rakhine people those who live in Bangladesh, mainly residing in the Chittagong Hill Tracts who are also known as the Marma people follows Buddhism.[46]

Buddhism in Rakhine State

Festivals

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Sangrai festival

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Sangrai is one of the main traditional ceremonies of the Marmas and Rakhines in which they celebrate the New Year with their own rules. In the case of the Marmas, it is celebrated according to their Burmese calendar.

Girls at the Water Festival (Sangrai)

The main attraction of Sangrai is the water sport called Marmara "Ri Long Poye". This water sports festival is held on the last day of Sangrai festival. Sangrai water sports are performed not only by the Marmas, but also by the Dai tribes of Southeast Asia, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and China in mid-April. In Myanmar, such events are called "Thingyan" and in Thailand and Laos this ceremony is called "Sankran". "Sankran" in Thai means change. Sangrai actually means saying goodbye to the old year and welcoming the new year. At the same time, the new Jhum farming season in the Chittagong Hill Tracts begins after Sangrai. Not only Jhum farming, the Marmaras do not get married again after the Maghi full moon until Sangrai, which means that the Marmaras in Sangrai mean to start anew by throwing away all the old things, including the beginning of the new year. And so the Marmaras celebrate the New Year with a joyous ceremony in the hope of blessings and good wishes.

Buddha Purnima

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The Rakhine People also observe the Buddha Purnima or internationally known as Vesak. It is also known as Buddha Birthday worldwide. This is the anniversary of three important events in Buddha's life—his birth, his attainment of enlightenment, and his death. It is observed on the full moon day of the month of Vaisakha (usually in May).

Pavarana Purnima

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Pavarana is a Buddhist holy day which is also celebrated by the Rakhine people on Aashvin full moon of the lunar month. This usually occurs on the full moon of the 11th month. It marks the end of the three lunar months of Vassa, sometimes called "Buddhist Lent." The day is marked in some Asian countries where Theravada Buddhism is practiced.

Buddhist devotees flying lanterns during pavarana purnima in Bangladesh

On this day at night, lanterns are blown into the sky to honor the heritage of Gautam Buddha.

Foods

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Rakhine cuisine is known for its bold, flavorful dishes that often feature seafood, reflecting the coastal nature of the Rakhine State. Traditional dishes like Mont di, a spicy rice noodle soup with fish broth, and Rakhine Moti, a pungent noodle soup, are staples that highlight the region's love for bold, savory tastes. The cuisine also features a variety of seafood, including prawns, crab, and fish, often prepared in flavorful curries or grilled to perfection. Another notable dish is Rakhine Moat Te Thoat, a refreshing salad made with rice vermicelli, fish cake, and fried beans. Rakhine food is distinguished by its emphasis on spiciness, sourness, and the use of locally sourced ingredients.

Rakhine Mont Di

Sports

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Rakhine traditional sports are deeply rooted in the region's cultural heritage, with wrestling and boat racing being particularly prominent. Among the prominent sports is Kyin Wrestling, known locally as "Kyin," is a traditional form of wrestling which is significant cultural practice among the Rakhine people. Competitions are often held during major events, such as Rakhine State Day, and feature participants engaging in a display of warming-up dances called "kyin kwin" before the matches commence. The rules are straightforward: no punching, no touching the face, and no attacks below the belt. The winner is determined by throwing the opponent to the ground a set number of times.[47]

Rakhine Kyin Wrestling during Thingyan Festival in Mrauk-U


Another popular traditional sport is boat racing.[48] Boat races are a cherished tradition in Rakhine, typically held during the monsoon season when the tides are favorable. These races are not only a form of entertainment but also a means to showcase teamwork and physical endurance. The practice dates back to the reign of former Rakhine kings and continues to be celebrated annually.

Language

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Main article: Rakhine language

The Rakhine language is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in western Myanmar, primarily in the Rakhine State. Closely related to Burmese, the language is spoken by the Rakhine and Marma peoples; it is estimated to have around one million native speakers and it is spoken as a second language by a further million.

Arakanese or the Rakhine Bamar Alphabet

It is closely related to and generally mutually intelligible with Burmese. Notably, Rakhine retains an /r/ sound that has become /j/ in Burmese. Rakhine utilises the Burmese alphabet.

Rakhine State is home to Sanskrit inscriptions that date from the first millennium to the 1000s. These inscriptions were written in Northern Brahmic scripts (namely Siddham or Gaudi), which are ancestral to the Bengali script. However, these inscriptions are not ancestral to Arakanese epigraphy, which uses the Mon–Burmese script. While some Arakanese have coined the term "Rakkhawunna" (Rakkhavaṇṇa) to describe a script that predates the usage of written Burmese, there is no contemporary lithic evidence to support the existence of such a script.

Notable Rakhine

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Main category: Rakhine people

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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  • Charney, Michael W. (1999). 'Where Jambudipa and Islamdom Converged: Religious Change and the Emergence of Buddhist Communalism in Early Modern Arakan, 15th–19th Centuries.' PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan.
  • Charney, Michael (2005). Buddhism in Arakan:Theories and Historiography of the Religious Basis of Ethnonyms. Arakan History Conference. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
  • Leider, Jacques P. (2004). 'Le Royaume d'Arakan, Birmanie. Son histoire politique entre le début du XVe et la fin du XVIIe siècle,' Paris, EFEO.
  • Loeffner, L. G. (1976). "Historical Phonology of Burmese and Arakanese Finals." Ninth International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Copenhagen. 22–24 Oct. 1976.
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