Ecological evolutionary developmental biology
Ecological evolutionary developmental biology (eco-evo-devo) is a field of biology combining ecology, developmental biology and evolutionary biology to examine their relationship. The concept is closely tied to multiple biological mechanisms. The effects of eco-evo-devo can be a result of developmental plasticity, the result of symbiotic relationships or epigenetically inherited. The overlap between developmental plasticity and symbioses rooted in evolutionary concepts defines ecological evolutionary developmental biology. Host- microorganisms interactions during development characterize symbiotic relationships, whilst the spectrum of phenotypes rooted in canalization with response to environmental cues highlights plasticity.[1] Developmental plasticity that is controlled by environmental temperature may put certain species at risk as a result of climate change.
Phenotypic plasticity
[edit]Phenotypic or developmental plasticity is the alteration of development through environmental factors.[2] These factors can induce multiple types of variants that increase the fitness of an organism based on the environment they are in. These alterations can be for defense, predation, sex determination, and sexual selection.[2]
Plasticity-driven adaptation acts on evolution in three ways by phenotypic accommodation, genetic accommodation, and genetic assimilation. Phenotypic accommodation is when a organism adjusts its phenotype to better fit its environment without being genetically induced.[3][2] The trait that is selected by the environment through phenotypic accommodation can then be integrated into the genome. This process is called genetic accommodation. Genetic accommodation allows for traits that were produced by the environment to be passed on, and it gives better responses to environmental changes.[4] Lastly, genetic assimilation is when the induced phenotype is fixed into the genome. The trait is no longer environmentally induced. At this stage plasticity is lost because when the environmental stimulus is lost the phenotype still remains.[2][5]
In some cases species change their environment to suit them. This phenomenon is called niche construction. These organisms can change unfavorable conditions to fit them. These changes relieve selective pressures to give an advantage they would have otherwise. These advantages could be creating shelters like nests and burrows, modifying the environment physically or chemically, or making shade.[2][6]
Epigenetic inheritance
[edit]Epigenetic heritance is the inheritance of epigenetic marks on the DNA induced by environmental factors. A simple examples of this is permutation, this was described first in plants. What happens is the shape or color of the seed alters the homologous allele.[7] These marks alter gene expression patterns, which can be transmitted to the next generation. This means that environmental cues can influence the development of the organism’s offspring.
This is similar to the evolution theory of Lamarck. He stated that an organism can pass physical characteristics that the parent organism acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime on to its offspring. Though, this is not entirely true, a lot of organisms have traits or genes that they don't use but epigenetic inheritance, like environmental factors such as temperature or food availability during the parent’s life can impact the development of the offspring. An example of this is nutrition in the youth, genes aren't the only thing that control things in the body. Poor nutrition can slow down and heavily delay the smooth transition of puberty in a child.[8]
This can also force some genes that were null to become activated and other genes to turn off.[9] Many do not consider this phenomenon, and it is quite interesting to consider that things like malnutrition and temperature in one organism can affect the following generations of that organism.[7]
Symbiotic interactions
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Symbiosis describes the relationship between two species living closely together in an environment, and symbiotic interactions are significant influences on eco-evo-devo dynamics. Many symbiotic organisms have co-evolved and, over time, have become reliant on these relationships. The effect on either involved organism may be positive, neutral, or negative, and these effects are used to broadly categorize different types of symbiotic relationships. Symbiotic relationships generally fall into the categories of mutualism, commensalism, parasitism/predation, amensalism, or competition, although other categorizations may be used to describe more complex or uncommon interactions. The relationship between clownfish and anemones is one example of a mutualistic symbiosis.[10] Mutualisms are particularly common between ectotherms, making these symbiotic relationships some of the most threatened by climate change.[11]
Climate change
[edit]Climate change may alter the development of organisms. As a type of developmental plasticity, the sex determination of particular animals can be influenced by the temperature of the environment. Some Reptiles and ray-finned fish rely on temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). The determination takes place during a specific period of the embryonic development. Although the exact mechanisms of this type of sex determination remains unknown for most species, temperature sensitive proteins that determine the sex of alligators have been found.[12] The effects of rising temperatures can already be seen in animals, for example the green sea turtle. Sea turtles produce more females when exposed to higher temperatures.[13] As a result adult green turtle populations are currently 65% female on cooler beaches, but can reach 85% on their warmer nesting beaches.[14] In contrast to the rising female proportion of sea turtles, the fish that use TSD, such as the southern flounder, generally produce more males in response to higher temperatures.[15] Species that are strongly influenced by temperature in their sex determination may be particularly at risk from climate change. From an evolutionary standpoint, sea turtles' sex chromosomes differ from other species of reptiles, and this difference makes them susceptible to TSD. Researchers believe this phenomenon is worth studying as climate change may one day have an effect on other types of vertebrates.[16]
Rising global temperatures may decrease the amount of genetic variation, hurting specific species' chance at survival.[17] Having a large gene pool is crucial when it comes to being able to adapt to environmental conditions and disease. Climate change can lower the amount of genetic diversity in a population over time and is extremely detrimental to the overall fitness of individuals in a given population.[18]
Climate change affects more than just animals when it comes to development. It affects people as well, especially those in developing countries. For example, expecting mothers who are in areas where droughts are more common due to climate change, may suffer from dehydration which can have harmful effects on their child's development.[19] Dehydration can cause amniotic fluid levels to be lower, which directly correlates to the baby's development and can even cause premature birth.[20] Malnutrition in children is a huge problem in developing countries. Rising global temperatures can alter growing seasons for certain food groups, making it hard for children to get the proper nutrients they need for ideal human development.[21]
Ecological, evolutionary, developmental biology compares these subgenres of biology. Interaction between organisms and the environment is very important. Climate change intensely alters these interactions and is cause for concern in regard to the overall well-being of our ecological landscape. Climate change affects humans, animals, plants, and bacteria and their symbiotic relationships with each other drastically. It is important for scientists, researchers, and people around the world to work together to find the best strategy to preserve biological diversity and to slow down the rising global temperatures and the effects of climate change.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Gilbert SF, Bosch TC, Ledón-Rettig C (October 2015). "Eco-Evo-Devo: developmental symbiosis and developmental plasticity as evolutionary agents". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 16 (10): 611–622. doi:10.1038/nrg3982. PMID 26370902. S2CID 205486234.
- ^ a b c d e Gilbert, Scott, F. and David Epel. Ecological Developmental Biology. Available from: Yuzu Reader, (2nd Edition). Oxford University Press Academic US, 2015.
- ^ West-Eberhard MJ (November 2005). "Phenotypic accommodation: adaptive innovation due to developmental plasticity". Journal of Experimental Zoology. Part B, Molecular and Developmental Evolution. 304 (6): 610–618. Bibcode:2005JEZB..304..610W. doi:10.1002/jez.b.21071. PMID 16161068.
- ^ Gilbert SF, Bosch TC, Ledón-Rettig C (October 2015). "Eco-Evo-Devo: developmental symbiosis and developmental plasticity as evolutionary agents". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 16 (10): 611–622. doi:10.1038/nrg3982. PMID 26370902.
- ^ Nijhout HF, Kudla AM, Hazelwood CC (2021). "Genetic assimilation and accommodation: Models and mechanisms". Current Topics in Developmental Biology. 141: 337–369. doi:10.1016/bs.ctdb.2020.11.006. ISBN 978-0-12-814968-3. PMID 33602492.
- ^ Laland K, Matthews B, Feldman MW (2016). "An introduction to niche construction theory". Evolutionary Ecology. 30 (2): 191–202. Bibcode:2016EvEco..30..191L. doi:10.1007/s10682-016-9821-z. PMC 4922671. PMID 27429507.
- ^ a b Martin C, Zhang (26 April 2007). "Mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance". Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 19 (3): 266–272. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2007.04.002. PMID 17466502 – via Science Direct.
- ^ Writer LF (2024-03-27). "Nutrition and puberty: The best way to feed your child's growth". Inside Children's Blog. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
- ^ Horsthemke B (2018-07-30). "A critical view on transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in humans". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 2973. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.2973H. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-05445-5. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6065375. PMID 30061690.
- ^ "Symbiosis: The Art of Living Together". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 2024-03-31.
- ^ Six DL (October 2009). "Climate change and mutualism". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 7 (10): 686. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2232. PMID 19756007.
- ^ Yatsu R, Miyagawa S, Kohno S, Saito S, Lowers RH, Ogino Y, et al. (December 2015). "TRPV4 associates environmental temperature and sex determination in the American alligator". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 18581. Bibcode:2015NatSR...518581Y. doi:10.1038/srep18581. PMC 4683465. PMID 26677944.
- ^ Reneker JL, Kamel SJ (December 2016). "Climate change increases the production of female hatchlings at a northern sea turtle rookery". Ecology. 97 (12): 3257–3264. Bibcode:2016Ecol...97.3257R. doi:10.1002/ecy.1603. PMID 27912005. S2CID 205779228.
- ^ Jensen MP, Allen CD, Eguchi T, Bell IP, LaCasella EL, Hilton WA, et al. (January 2018). "Environmental Warming and Feminization of One of the Largest Sea Turtle Populations in the World". Current Biology. 28 (1): 154–159.e4. Bibcode:2018CBio...28E.154J. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.057. PMID 29316410. S2CID 30322533.
- ^ Honeycutt JL, Deck CA, Miller SC, Severance ME, Atkins EB, Luckenbach JA, et al. (April 2019). "Warmer waters masculinize wild populations of a fish with temperature-dependent sex determination". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 6527. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.6527H. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42944-x. PMC 6483984. PMID 31024053.
- ^ Janzen FJ, Paukstis GL (June 1991). "Environmental sex determination in reptiles: ecology, evolution, and experimental design". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 66 (2): 149–179. doi:10.1086/417143. PMID 1891591. S2CID 35956765.
- ^ Razgour O, Forester B, Taggart JB, Bekaert M, Juste J, Ibáñez C, et al. (May 2019). "Considering adaptive genetic variation in climate change vulnerability assessment reduces species range loss projections". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (21): 10418–10423. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11610418R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1820663116. PMC 6535011. PMID 31061126.
- ^ "Gene Pool - Definition, Types, Working, Importance, Evolution, Examples". 2023-06-19. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
- ^ Lusambili A, Nakstad B (May 2023). "Awareness and interventions to reduce dehydration in pregnant, postpartum women, and newborns in rural Kenya". African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine. 15 (1): e1–e3. doi:10.4102/phcfm.v15i1.3991. PMC 10244926. PMID 37265162.
- ^ "Dehydration during pregnancy: Early symptoms and prevention". www.medicalnewstoday.com. 2018-06-22. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
- ^ Gregory PJ, Ingram JS, Brklacich M (November 2005). "Climate change and food security". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 360 (1463): 2139–2148. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1745. PMC 1569578. PMID 16433099.
