Draft:Jarrah Honey

• Comment: Many sections of this article such as the "production" section and the "characteristics" section either need more citations in general or more reliable citations. I have a suspicion some of this is written by a large language model, and I would recommend the "characteristics" and "uses" sections especially to be rewritten or adjusted. Beachweak (talk) 11:43, 30 December 2024 (UTC)

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Jarrah honey is a premium monofloral honey produced by bees that forage on the nectar of the Jarrah tree (Eucalyptus marginata), native to Western Australia. Renowned for its unique flavor, medicinal properties, and rarity, Jarrah honey is highly sought after both domestically and internationally.

Production and Harvesting

The Jarrah tree (Eucalyptus marginata) is endemic to the south-west forest region of Western Australia. This evergreen hardwood tree lives for 400 or more years and typically reaches maturity at 70 - 120 years. Senescence is believed to occurs beyond 250 years. The forest occurs in either intimate mixtures or as a mosaic of different forest types with marri (Corymbia calophylla), wandoo (E. wandoo), powderbark wandoo (E. accedens), blackbutt (E. patens), karri (E. diversicolor) and yellow tingle (E. guilfoylei).

The area of jarrah forest at the time of European settlement is estimated to have been 2.8 million hectares, although the species occurred over an area double that size. Sixty five per cent of the original forest area remains, with approximately 1.6 million hectares on public land. The forests are located within the south-west botanical province of Western Australia which is recognised as one of the world’s 25 global biodiversity hotspots, with approximately 7,400 species of vascular plants, half of which are endemic. It is home to 245 vertebrate species, comprising 29 mammals, 150 birds, 44 reptiles, 11 amphibians and 11 fish.

At maturity the jarrah tree reaches heights of 40 meters and produces an abundance of creamy white flowers during its blooming season which typically occurs between September and January. The Jarrah is capable of flowering each year, but full the floral cycle takes three years to complete. Significant flowering events occur on a four to six year cycle, with most trees within any region flowering at the same time . Bees collect the nectar from the flowers to produce Jarrah honey. Overlapping floral cycles means that Jarrah honey is typically harvested by beekeepers only once every two years.

Average production of Jarrah honey is only 100 tonnes per annum but the yield is significantly impacted by the environment (fire, rainfall, soil moisture and temperatures). For example a peak yield of 400 tonnes was recorded in the 2011 - 12 season, while the harvest was only 50 tonnes in the 2023 - 24 season. Typically 75% of the harvest is considered premium export grade which typically has total activity levels in excess of 35. Jarrah honey represents only 2.5% of Western Australian honey production, contributing to its exclusivity and higher market value.

Characteristics

Jarrah honey is distinguished by its dark amber to reddish-brown hue and a viscous, syrup-like consistency. It possesses a rich, caramel-like flavor with earthy undertones and a subtle nuttiness, setting it apart from other honey varieties. Notably, Jarrah honey has a low glucose content and a high fructose level, resulting in a low glycemic index (GI) of approximately 52. This composition not only makes it a suitable sweetener for individuals monitoring blood sugar levels but also contributes to its slow crystallization, allowing it to remain in a liquid state longer than other honeys.

Chemical Composition

The unique properties of Jarrah honey are attributed to its complex chemical composition of at least 200 phytochemicals, which includes:

Hydrogen Peroxide: Jarrah honey has been found to have consistently high antimicrobial activity due to the presence of hydrogen peroxide which is found in varying concentrations in many honeys. Hydrogen peroxide presence in honey is derived from the enzymatic activity of glucose oxidase. The source of glucose oxidase found in honey can originate from the honey bees' hypopharyngeal glands that are located within its head or from the nectar of the flower. The hydrogen peroxide activity is expressed as % w/v phenol and can be expressed as % phenol equivalent because the antimicrobial activity test is a phenol equivalence assay where the activity of honey is referenced to a phenol standard.

Phenolic Compounds: Jarrah honey contains various phenolic acids (such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and quercetin), flavonoids, carotenoids and ascorbic acid that act synergistically and contribute to its health benefits and distinctive flavor profile.

Low Glucose and High Fructose: Jarrah honey contains fructose (42.5%), glucose (20.8%), maltose (1.9%) and sucrose (<0.5%). Due to its high fructose content, Jarrah honey also has a lower glycaemic index (54 ± 3 GI value) compared to many other kinds of honey.

Health Benefits

Jarrah honey is esteemed for its numerous health benefits, supported by scientific research:

Antimicrobial Properties:

The antimicrobial activity of honey is due to its osmotic effect, acidity and the presence of hydrogen peroxide. High total activity (TA) Jarrah honey is effective against a range of pathogens, including antibiotic-resistant strains such as Staphylococcus aureus ‘Golden Staph’. Studies have found that the activity of jarrah honey was ~90% greater than the average activity of New Zealand’s manuka honey. Jarrah honeys demonstrated significant antibacterial effects against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 6.7% to 28.0% (w/v). Similarly, Jarrah honey was effective in reducing biofilm formation and pigment production in bacteria. Application to existing biofilms decreased bacterial metabolic activity and viability, indicating potential for treating biofilm-associated infections. This has resulted in it achieving medical status as being an important effective antiseptic alternative when dressing wounds, burns and ulcers.

Antifungal Properties:

Jarrah honey is effective against dermatophyte fungi responsible for skin infections such as athlete's foot and ringworm. In one study, Jarrah honey exhibited significant inhibitory effects on dermatophyte fungi, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 1.5% to 3.5% (w/v). Microscopic examinations revealed that Jarrah honey impeded the germination of Trichophyton rubrum conidia (spores). Scanning electron microscopy showed structural deformities in mature T. rubrum hyphae, including bulging and collapsed regions, after treatment with the jarrah honey.

Antioxidant Activity:

The abundance of phenolic compounds in jarrah honey provides strong antioxidant properties, aiding in neutralizing free radicals, reducing oxidative stress, and supporting overall health. The importance of antioxidants is that it may help protect against cellular damage and the development of chronic diseases. Antioxidants are measured in three types of assays:

1. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) also known as anti-lipoperoxidant activity: Jarrah honey has exhibited ORAC values of 6.1 ± 0.3 µmol TE/g, indicating its ability to neutralize oxygen radicals.

2. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP): FRAP assays have revealed a value of 4.5 ± 0.2 µmol TE/g for Jarrah honey, reflecting its capacity to reduce ferric ions.

3. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Radical Scavenging Activity: Jarrah honey demonstrated a DPPH values of 3.2 ± 0.1 µmol TE/g, showcasing its effectiveness in scavenging free radicals.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects:

Jarrah honey's anti-inflammatory effects are attributed to its ability to inhibit the activity of inflammatory enzymes and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Regular consumption of Jarrah honey may help reduce inflammation, offering relief in conditions such as sore throats and respiratory ailments. Jarrah honey's antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties make it effective against viral and bacterial infections causing sore throats. Additionally, honey's soothing effect coats the throat, reducing irritation and pain.

In wound healing jarrah honey reduces inflammation, promotes tissue regeneration, and accelerates healing. Clinical applications have involved daily topical honey treatments under occlusion for patients with inflammatory skin conditions like eczema, seborrheic dermatitis, and psoriasis, resulting in promising improvements.

Additionally, honey's anti-inflammatory action may be advantageous in managing chronic inflammatory conditions such as atherosclerosis and diabetes mellitus.

Prebiotic Properties

Jarrah honey has a Positive Probiotic Index, with jarrah scoring 0.91, a score of 1.0 denotes the honey is as effective as the commercial prebiotic. It promoted excellent beneficial impact on:

Laca - Increase in lactobacilli counts in microcosms;

Bifb - Increase in bifidobacteria counts in microcosms;

Cloc - Decrease in clostrida counts in microcosms;

Entd - Decrease in enteric bacteria counts in microcosms;

PIe -Prebiotic Index values calculated from bacterial counts in microcosms;

Butyric acidf - Increase in butyric acid levels in microcosms;

ST inhibitiong - Inhibition of S. typhimurium seeded into microcosms;

STh - Inhibitory effect of microcosm supernatant on growth of S. typhimurium;

CDi - Inhibitory effect of microcosm supernatant on growth of C. difficile;

ECj - Inhibitory effect of microcosm supernatant on growth of E. coli;

LFk - Growth of L. fermentum in microcosm supernatant.

Low Glycemic Index:

Jarrah honey has a low glycaemic index (54 ± 3 GI value) that means a slower release of glucose into the bloodstream, making it a healthier alternative to conventional sweeteners, particularly for individuals with diabetes or those monitoring their sugar intake. This combined with jarrah honey's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties may aid in mitigating diabetes-related complications.

Uses

The versatility of Jarrah honey extends across various applications:

Culinary:

Jarrah honey's unique flavor, texture, and nutritional profile make it a versatile ingredient in various culinary applications. Its rich, caramel-like taste with earthy undertones pairs well with both sweet and savory dishes.

Natural Sweetener: Ideal as a healthier alternative to refined sugar due to its lower glycemic index (GI). Used to sweeten beverages such as tea, coffee, and smoothies.

Baking and Desserts: Enhances the flavor of baked goods like cakes, muffins, and cookies. Drizzled over desserts such as ice cream, yogurt, or panna cotta for added sweetness and depth.

Breakfast Toppings: Perfect for drizzling over pancakes, waffles, or French toast. Mixed with oats or granola for a nutritious breakfast.

Glazes and Marinades: Combines well with mustard, soy sauce, or vinegar to create glazes for meats such as chicken, pork, or salmon. Adds a subtle sweetness to marinades, balancing savory flavors.

Salad Dressings: Incorporated into vinaigrettes or creamy dressings for salads. Its natural sweetness pairs well with citrus, balsamic vinegar, or dijon mustard.

Cheese Pairings: A popular choice for charcuterie boards, paired with cheeses like brie, blue cheese, or sharp cheddar. Its complex flavor complements both mild and strong cheeses.

Preserving and Fermentation: Used in homemade preserves or chutneys for its natural preservative properties. Acts as a sugar source in fermentations like mead or kombucha.

Medicinal (topical):

Wound healing and treating burns.

There is a large body of evidence to support the use of jarrah honey topically as a wound dressing for a wide range of types of wounds. Its antibacterial activity rapidly clears infection and protects wounds from becoming infected, and thus it provides a moist healing environment without the risk of bacterial growth occurring. It also rapidly debrides wounds and removes malodor. Its anti-inflammatory activity reduces edema and exudate and prevents or minimizes hypertrophic scarring. It also stimulates the growth of granulation tissue and epithelial tissue so that healing is hastened. Furthermore, it creates a 9 nonadherent interface between the wound and the dressing so that dressings may be easily removed without pain or damage to newly regrown tissue.

Treatment of eczema, seborrheic dermatitis, and psoriasis.

Treatment of athlete's foot and ringworm.

Medicinal (oral ingestion):

Jarrah honey has shown prebiotic capabilities which could assist in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease through the promotion of the beneficial populations in the gut, while reducing the numbers of the less desirable ones, such as clostridia which are commonly implicated in antibiotic-associated diarrhea. The gut microbiota is able to use the honey to inhibit enteropathogens and that the honey supported growth of a commercial probiotic strain.

A double-blinded human clinical study utilized 4 different Australian honeys to review the effect of consuming 20g of a honey daily for 4 weeks. It found that the honeys offer significant prebiotic benefits when consumed by human subjects and concluded that the tested Australian honeys had considerable prebiotic capacity which was comparable to or better than inulin. The prebiotic properties of the honeys were associated with the fructose and the oligosaccharides of the honeys which promoted the beneficial bacteria, inhibited the potential pathogens and elevated butyric acid levels.

Guidelines recommended jarrah honey to relieve symptoms of acute colds, sore throats and upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) in both children and adults. Jarrah honey has been shown to be superior to usual care and could help efforts to slow the spread of antimicrobial resistance.

Comparison with Other Honeys

Jarrah honey is often compared to Manuka honey, another honey renowned for its medicinal properties. While both exhibit strong antimicrobial activities, the mechanisms differ. Manuka honey's activity is largely due to methylglyoxal (MGO), whereas Jarrah honey's is attributed to hydrogen peroxide. Additionally, Jarrah honey has a lower GI and a higher fructose content compared to Manuka, making it a preferable choice for those monitoring blood sugar levels.

Sustainability and Conservation

The production of Jarrah honey is closely linked to environmental conservation efforts. Beekeepers and honey producers collaborate with conservationists to ensure that their practices promote the health of Jarrah forests. By supporting these producers, consumers contribute to the preservation of Australia's natural heritage.

Market and Availability

Average production of Jarrah honey is only 100 tonnes per annum - it is only produced in Western Australia. Due to its biennial harvesting cycle and the limited flowering of Jarrah trees, Jarrah honey is relatively rare and commands a premium price in the market - making it one of the most rare and expensive honey's in the world, costing up to US$3,500/kg.

Its unique health benefits and rich flavor profile have increased its demand, both within Australia and internationally. Consumers are advised to purchase Jarrah honey from reputable sources to ensure authenticity and quality.