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Draft:Development of Sino-foreign Cooperative Universities

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Abstract

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Sino-foreign cooperative universities (SFCUs) are transnational higher education institutions in China with independent legal representative status as educational organizations that are established through partnerships between Chinese universities and foreign educational institution. The fundamental objective of Sino-foreign cooperative education is to introduce, absorb and utilize high-quality foreign educational resources by collaborating with top-ranked foreign universities. These universities are part of China's broader strategy to reform and internationalize its higher education system, which has evolved significantly over the past few decades.

History and Development

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Before 1970s

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Since the late 19th century and the start of modern higher education, China has been significantly shaped by foreign educational systems. In the period of the Republic of China, the Chinese educational system often borrowed or imitated education models from Japan, Germany, France, and the United States. By the late 1920s, China had developed its own education system, largely based on the American model. And there were a great number of higher educational institutions jointly established by American and Chinese, such as Peking Union Medical College, Yenching University, and St. John’s University Shanghai[1]. Then, after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, with the close relationship between China and the Soviet Union, China’s education quickly turned to the Soviet Model. During the period of Soviet influence, the Soviet Union’s subjects, disciplines, and textbooks became dominant in China. However, this approach was flawed by a misunderstanding of the Soviet model, leading to an indiscriminate and mechanical application of Soviet practices. During the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Chinese higher education experienced a decade-long disruption, with limited exposure to international academic standards and Western-style education[2]. Before the Reform and Opening up, China's higher education system was marked by excessive specialization, limited scope for talent development, a lack of institutional autonomy, and little international communication[3].

Early Development (1970s-1990s)

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In 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (中国共产党第十一届中央委员会第三次全体会议) adopted the policy of Reform and Opening Up, which paved the way for the reemergence of Sino-foreign cooperative education. Deng Xiaoping emphasized that China’s education system should align with modernization, global trends, and future needs (教育要面向现代化，面向世界，面向未来), offering ideological guidance for the development of Sino-foreign cooperative education initiatives[4]. In 1985, the Central Committee of the Communist Party issued the "Decision on the Reform of the Education System," (关于教育改革的决定), which explicitly called for China to open up to international collaboration, create favorable conditions, and ensure that Chinese education is in line with the achievements of world civilization[5]. These policies and ideas demonstrated the Chinese government’s vision and commitment to reform Chinese education. The first public policy governing Sino-Foreign cooperative education was the Interim Provisions on Sino-Foreign Cooperative Education (中外合作办学暂行规定)[6], issued by the former State Education Commission in 1995. This document provided a clear definition of the concept, principles, approval process, institutional framework, leadership structure, and guidelines for the issuance of certificates and diplomas in Sino-Foreign cooperative education. It marked the beginning of formal policy guidance in this field.

Expansion (1990s-2020s)

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In this period, the establishment of Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities accelerated. This period saw rapid economic growth in China especially after China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO), which fueled an increased demand for higher education. The rapid economic growth and the mass expansion of higher education in China led to a growing tension between the increasing demand for advanced higher education resources and the insufficient supply to meet it[7]. As a result, many middle-class families in China started to send their children abroad to pursue higher education, with the aim of providing them with advanced knowledge and skills, enhancing their employability, supporting career development, and ultimately achieving upward socioeconomic mobility[8][9]. While studying abroad can offer their children significant benefits, it also presents a range of challenges, including high costs, issues related to religion and ethnicity, concerns over personal and property safety, and cultural adjustment[10]. In response to the growing demand for high-quality education and to address public concerns about the risks associated with studying abroad, the Chinese government turned to accelerate the internationalization of its higher education system[11]. At the same time, the Chinese government recognized that domestic universities alone could not meet the demands for skilled workers in areas such as technology, business, and management[12]. As a result, many foreign universities entered China to offer joint degree programs, attract Chinese students, and establish campuses.

List of Chinese-foreign cooperatively-run schools having entity

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Duke Kunshan University (DKU)

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Duke Kunshan University (DKU) was established in 2014 as a partnership between Duke University, Wuhan University, and the Kunshan Municipal Government. Located in Kunshan, a city at the heart of China’s Yangtze River Delta, DKU is dedicated to providing a world-class liberal arts and research-focused education. The university emphasizes interdisciplinary learning, innovation, and global perspectives. It offers a variety of undergraduate and graduate programs, fostering a diverse and inclusive academic environment that encourages international collaboration and cross-cultural exchanges[13].

Xi'an Jiaotong–Liverpool University (XJTLU)

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Xi'an Jiaotong–Liverpool University (XJTLU) was founded in 2006 as a collaborative partnership between Xi'an Jiaotong University in China and the University of Liverpool in the United Kingdom. Located in Suzhou, a city known for its historical significance and modern development, XJTLU is committed to integrating the best practices of both Chinese and Western education systems. The university offers a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs, emphasizing interdisciplinary learning, research innovation, and international perspectives. XJTLU actively promotes cross-cultural exchanges and prepares students for global careers in an increasingly interconnected world[14].

New York University Shanghai (NYU Shanghai)

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New York University Shanghai (NYU Shanghai), established in 2012 as a partnership between New York University and East China Normal University, is the first Sino-American research university in China. Located in the global financial and cultural hub of Shanghai, it offers a range of undergraduate and graduate programs that integrate NYU’s academic excellence with a focus on China’s global significance. The university emphasizes interdisciplinary learning, cultural diversity, and international collaboration, with students and faculty from over 70 countries. Leveraging NYU’s global network, students have opportunities to study abroad at various NYU campuses, while the Shanghai location provides unique insights into China’s dynamic role in global affairs. This combination of global perspective and local engagement equips graduates to address complex challenges in an interconnected world[15].

The University of Nottingham Ningbo China (UNNC)

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The University of Nottingham Ningbo China (UNNC), established in 2004 as a partnership between the University of Nottingham and Zhejiang Wanli Education Group, is the first Sino-foreign university in China. Located in Ningbo, a rapidly developing port city, UNNC offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs with a curriculum modeled after its UK counterpart. The university emphasizes global perspectives, interdisciplinary learning, and research excellence, preparing students to succeed in an increasingly interconnected world while fostering understanding of China's unique role in global development[16].

Wenzhou–Kean University (WKU)

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Wenzhou–Kean University (WKU), established in 2011 as a partnership between Kean University in the United States and Wenzhou University in China, is a Sino-American institution dedicated to providing high-quality international education. Located in Wenzhou, a city known for its entrepreneurial spirit, WKU offers undergraduate and graduate programs based on the American liberal arts education model. The university emphasizes global perspectives, interdisciplinary learning, and innovative research, preparing students to thrive in a competitive and interconnected world[17].

Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen (CUHK Shenzhen)

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Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen (CUHK Shenzhen) was founded in 2014 by the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Shenzhen Municipal Government. It is located in the rapidly developing city of Shenzhen. It is committed to providing high-quality education and conducting innovative research, with a focus on combining modern technology with a global perspective. It offers a wide range of undergraduate, master’s and doctoral programs, emphasizes interdisciplinary learning, and encourages international cooperation and exchanges[18].

Guangdong Technion – Israel Institute of Technology(GTIIT)

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Guangdong Technion – Israel Institute of Technology(GTIIT) is a university jointly founded by the Guangdong Provincial Government and the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion) in 2016, located in Shantou City, Guangdong Province. It focuses on engineering and technology, aiming to combine Israel’s innovative technology with China’s academic advantages, provide international education and high-level scientific research, and promote cooperation and exchanges between China and Israel[19].

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Guangzhou) (HKUST Guangzhou)

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Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Guangzhou) (HKUST Guangzhou) is a branch of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) in mainland China, established in 2022. The establishment of the Guangzhou campus marks an important step in the expansion of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology in mainland China. It aims to provide students with world-class education and research opportunities, especially in the fields of science and technology, business and management. It focuses on the integration of Hong Kong, Guangzhou and international cooperation, and provides education with a global perspective[20].

Shenzhen MSU–BIT University is a university jointly established by Moscow State University (MSU)

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Shenzhen MSU–BIT University is a university jointly established by Moscow State University (MSU), Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) and Shenzhen Municipal Government in 2016. It focuses on high-quality education in science, engineering and technology, emphasizes internationalization and cross-cultural exchanges, and attracts students and faculty from all over the world. It offers bilingual courses in Chinese and English and is committed to promoting cooperation in education and research between China and Russia[21].

United International College (UIC)

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United International College (UIC) is jointly established by Beijing Normal University and Hong Kong Baptist University. It was established in 2005 and is located in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. It offers a variety of undergraduate degree programs, combining Western teaching concepts with traditional Chinese culture, focusing on cultivating students with an international perspective, and is committed to providing students with a rigorous and culturally rich education to help them stand out in the global job market[22].

Key Policies and Regulations

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Education Law

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  • Degree Law of the People’s Republic of China[23]
    • Granting Degrees to Overseas Individuals

The Degree Law (Draft) stipulates that Chinese degree-conferring institutions must adhere to the same academic and professional criteria when awarding degrees to overseas individuals. This framework ensures that Sino-foreign cooperative universities operating in China and abroad maintain consistent academic standards. Any degrees conferred within China’s borders by foreign educational institutions must comply with Chinese laws and regulations, and the recognition of foreign-awarded degrees in China must follow national guidelines. These provisions help maintain the quality and legitimacy of degrees issued by Sino-foreign cooperative universities, thus fostering greater international trust and academic exchange.

  • Education Law of the People’s Republic of China[24]
    • Encouraging International Exchange and Cooperative Education:

The Education Law provides a broad legal foundation for international collaboration in higher education. It explicitly encourages schools and other educational bodies to introduce quality foreign educational resources and to engage in Sino-foreign cooperative educational ventures. This includes establishing joint programs and institutions that blend global best practices with China’s educational objectives.

    • Legal Principles and Safeguards

Such cooperation must respect China’s sovereignty, security, and public interests, ensuring that Sino-foreign cooperative universities operate under principles of equality, mutual benefit, and adherence to Chinese law. Meanwhile, foreign educators and researchers—once meeting the necessary national requirements—can teach, study, or conduct research in Chinese universities with their rights protected by law. Additionally, the recognition of foreign-issued academic certificates, including those from partner institutions in Sino-foreign ventures, is guided by international treaties and Chinese regulations.

  • Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China[25]
    • Autonomy in International Collaboration

The Higher Education Law grants Chinese universities the right to independently engage in scientific, technological, and cultural exchanges and cooperation with overseas higher education institutions. This autonomy allows Sino-foreign cooperative universities to develop joint curricula, research projects, and exchange programs that enhance their global reach and academic quality.

    • Rights and Protections for Overseas Individuals

Foreign nationals who meet China’s stipulated conditions can enter Chinese higher education institutions to study, teach, or conduct research. Their legal rights and interests are safeguarded, providing a supportive environment for foreign faculty and students to contribute meaningfully to the educational ecosystem of Sino-foreign cooperative universities.

Education Administrative Regulations

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  • Implementation Regulations for the Law for Promoting Private Education of the People’s Republic of China[26]
    • Foreign Investment in Private Education

Foreign-invested enterprises and overseas-controlled organizations are prohibited from establishing, participating in, or effectively controlling private schools that provide compulsory education. For other types of private educational institutions, foreign entities must adhere to relevant state regulations on foreign investment.

    • Operational Autonomy and Use of Overseas Materials

Private schools may conduct educational activities independently, following the law and national regulations. Should foreign teaching materials be introduced, they must comply with corresponding state requirements.

    • Applicability of Support and Incentives

Any support and incentive measures provided by these regulations also extend to Sino-foreign cooperative educational institutions, creating a policy environment where such joint ventures can benefit from established encouragement policies.

  • Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools[27]
    • Nature and Scope of Cooperation

Sino-foreign cooperative education is treated as a public welfare undertaking and an integral part of China’s education system. The state particularly encourages cooperation in higher education and vocational training, promoting the introduction of high-quality foreign educational resources.

    • Legal Compliance and Restrictions

All Sino-foreign cooperative activities must follow Chinese law, uphold China’s educational principles, and safeguard national sovereignty, security, and public interests. Activities involving compulsory education, or those with specialized natures (e.g., military, police, political education), are not permitted. Religious education and activities are also strictly forbidden.

    • Curriculum and Credentials

Institutions must offer courses on China’s constitution, laws, civic ethics, and national conditions. While introducing advanced foreign curricula is encouraged, it must be done under state supervision. Higher-education-level cooperative institutions may confer academic degrees and other credentials, subject to Chinese laws and relevant international treaties or state regulations that govern the recognition of foreign-issued certifications.

    • Quality Assurance and Transparency

These institutions undergo regular supervision and evaluation to maintain educational standards, with results made public to ensure quality and accountability.

  • Administrative Measures for the Enrollment and Cultivation of International Students by Schools[28]
    • Compliance with Chinese Laws and Policies

Schools enrolling international students must abide by Chinese laws, policies, and requirements, ensuring that their practices do not compromise national sovereignty, security, or public interests.

    • Admission and Academic Requirements

Institutions with the requisite capabilities may independently enroll international students, maintaining consistent standards and transparent admissions criteria. Chinese language and courses providing an overview of China are mandatory for degree-seeking international students. For institutions offering foreign-language instruction, provisions ensure quality and adherence to national requirements, including the use of Chinese language summaries for degree theses.

    • Campus Management and Student Support

Institutions must establish robust support systems and transparent service provisions for international students, respecting their legitimate rights and integrating them into the academic environment. Fee structures, course offerings, and regulations must be publicly disclosed and follow national mandates.

    • Quality Assurance and Oversight

Continual quality monitoring and adherence to administrative procedures ensure that international student programs contribute to China’s broader educational objectives and international engagement strategies.

Impact on Higher Education

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  • Promotion of Educational Internationalization

Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities (SFCUs) are considered by some observers to play a role in the internationalization of higher education in China. By integrating international educational resources, SFCUs may introduce foreign teaching methods, curricula, and academic perspectives. Such initiatives are intended to help bridge perceived educational gaps between China and other countries, potentially contributing to the global competitiveness of Chinese universities[29]. The involvement of foreign universities in management and operation may also facilitate cross-cultural exchanges and collaboration, offering students a more internationalized educational experience[30].

  • Diversification of Teaching and Learning Approaches

A noted impact of SFCUs is the reported diversification of educational methods. While traditional Chinese pedagogical approaches are often described as teacher-centered, SFCUs are said to introduce more student-centered learning, encouraging interactive, inquiry-based activities and critical thinking[31]. This is sometimes achieved through smaller class sizes, discussions, and seminar-style teaching. Such approaches are viewed by proponents as fostering greater student engagement and promoting the development of lifelong learning skills[32].

  • Introduction of Liberal Arts Education

SFCUs have also been associated with the introduction of liberal arts education concepts, which were previously less common in China’s higher education landscape. The liberal arts ethos, as implemented by some SFCUs, emphasizes interdisciplinary learning and whole-person development, aligning in part with the Confucian-inspired concept of "Boya" (博雅) education. By combining Western and Chinese educational philosophies, these institutions may broaden students’ perspectives and encourage a more integrative approach to learning.[33]

  • Contribution to Human Capital Development

It has been suggested that SFCUs may help cultivate individuals with cross-cultural competencies and international perspectives, potentially improving graduates’ employability in global contexts[34]. By providing a platform where Chinese students can interact with foreign faculty and international peers, these universities may enhance students’ adaptability and global communication skills. Some observers argue that this could support the development of “T-shaped” talent, aligning with broader national goals for talent development[35].

  • Improvement of English Language Proficiency

Because many courses at SFCUs are taught in English, it is often noted that these institutions may contribute to improving students’ English language proficiency, particularly in academic and technical contexts[36]. Exposure to English-medium instruction can help students develop stronger language skills, which may benefit them in careers requiring international communication and English fluency[37].

  • Enhancement of Faculty Development

SFCUs have reportedly encouraged faculty exchanges between China and partner universities abroad. Through these interactions, Chinese faculty are exposed to a range of teaching methodologies, pedagogical theories, and assessment practices[38]. Over time, this exchange may influence faculty members’ own teaching approaches and is considered by some to broaden the professional and research horizons of academic staff[39].

  • Improvement of Administrative and Governance Structures

SFCUs have introduced alternative administrative and governance models to the Chinese higher education sector. Unlike traditional universities, which generally have tighter oversight from the Ministry of Education, these institutions may enjoy greater autonomy in curriculum design, faculty recruitment, and operational management[40]. Some scholars suggest that this hybrid governance structure could serve as a reference point for reforms in other Chinese universities[41].

Advantages

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  • International vision

Students can access academic resources and cultural backgrounds around the world, broaden their horizons, and improve their cross-cultural communication skills[42].

  • High-quality education

Sino-foreign cooperative universities integrate the advantages of Chinese and foreign education systems, provide high-standard curriculum platform and world-class faculty[43].

  • Scientific research cooperation

Sino-foreign cooperative education often promotes international scientific research cooperation, knowledge exchange and technological innovation[44].

  • Enhanced competitiveness

Graduates of Sino-foreign cooperative universities usually have dual academic backgrounds in China and abroad, making them highly competitive in the international workplace[45].

Challenges

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  • Cultural differences

Different teaching methods, educational concepts and language barriers may affect teaching effectiveness and bring certain difficulties to communication between teachers and students[46].

  • Regulatory issues

The administrative framework for Sino-foreign cooperative education is complex, and policy changes may affect the stability of the school[47].

  • Academic freedom

Some institutions may face restrictions on academic freedom and research independence, which may affect the breadth and quality of research[48].

  • Market perception

Although these schools provide high-level education, some employers may have reservations about degrees from Sino-foreign cooperative education, especially when compared with degrees from traditional local or international universities[49].

References

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  1. ^ Sizer, Nancy F. (1979). Keenan, Barry (ed.). "The Failure of Chinese Educational Leadership, 1919-1930". History of Education Quarterly. 19 (3): 381–392. doi:10.2307/367653. ISSN 0018-2680. JSTOR 367653.
  2. ^ Zhang, Ye. “Student Evaluation of Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities: From the Perspective of Internationalization of Higher Education.” Asia Pacific Journal of Education 43, no. 4 (December 3, 2021): 1107–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2021.2008872.
  3. ^ Shen, Wenqin; Zhang, Han; Liu, Chao (2022-09-01). "Toward a Chinese model: De-Sovietization reforms of China's higher education in the 1980s and 1990s". International Journal of Chinese Education. 11 (3): 2212585X221124936. doi:10.1177/2212585X221124936. ISSN 2212-585X.
  4. ^ Kashin, Vasily B.; Yankova, Alexandra D. (2022-12-15). "Evolution and transformation processes of China's educational policy and governance in 1978-2019". RUDN Journal of World History. 14 (4): 389–409. doi:10.22363/2312-8127-2022-14-4-389-409. ISSN 2312-833X.
  5. ^ Lewin, Keith; Hui, Xu (1989). "Rethinking Revolution; Reflections on China's 1985 Educational Reforms". Comparative Education. 25 (1): 7–17. doi:10.1080/0305006890250103. ISSN 0305-0068. JSTOR 3098999.
  6. ^ The State Council of the People's Republic of China (February 24, 1995). "Interim Provisions on Sino-Foreign Cooperative Education" (PDF). 中华人民共和国国务院.
  7. ^ Zhuang, Huijuan; Hu, Lidan; Guo, Jiaxin (2024-03-29). "Understanding and practices of global competence in Sino-foreign cooperative universities". Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice. 21 (4). doi:10.53761/aayefg73. ISSN 1449-9789.
  8. ^ Dan, Wang (2019). "The Evolution and Reconstruction of the Policy of Sino-Foreign Cooperative Education in the Sight of Internationalization of Higher Education". Scientific Research. 07 (11): 234–245. doi:10.4236/jss.2019.711016.
  9. ^ Wu, Shiyong; Zhou, Shuyi; Huang, Mingxi; Chen, Wei (2022-02-01). "Employment Prospects of Graduates From Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities in China". Journal of Studies in International Education. 26 (1): 21–43. doi:10.1177/1028315320957433. ISSN 1028-3153.
  10. ^ Zhang, Ye. “Student Evaluation of Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities: From the Perspective of Internationalization of Higher Education.” Asia Pacific Journal of Education 43, no. 4 (December 3, 2021): 1107–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2021.2008872.
  11. ^ Wu, Shiyong; Zhou, Shuyi; Huang, Mingxi; Chen, Wei (2022-02-01). "Employment Prospects of Graduates From Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities in China". Journal of Studies in International Education. 26 (1): 21–43. doi:10.1177/1028315320957433. ISSN 1028-3153.
  12. ^ Zhang, Ye. “Student Evaluation of Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities: From the Perspective of Internationalization of Higher Education.” Asia Pacific Journal of Education 43, no. 4 (December 3, 2021): 1107–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2021.2008872.
  13. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  14. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  15. ^ China Education Online. "Report on Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools." 中国教育在线. Accessed July 14, 2020. https://www.eol.cn/e_coop/gol/html/report2020/content.shtml
  16. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  17. ^ China Education Online. "Report on Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools." 中国教育在线. Accessed July 14, 2020. https://www.eol.cn/e_coop/gol/html/report2020/content.shtml
  18. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  19. ^ China Education Online. "Report on Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools." 中国教育在线. Accessed July 14, 2020. https://www.eol.cn/e_coop/gol/html/report2020/content.shtml
  20. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  21. ^ China Education Online. "Report on Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools." 中国教育在线. Accessed July 14, 2020. https://www.eol.cn/e_coop/gol/html/report2020/content.shtml
  22. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  23. ^ Degree Law of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国学位法), promulgated by the National People’s Congress on April 26, 2024, effective January 1, 2025, http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_zcfg/zcfg_jyfl/202404/t20240426_1127804.html.
  24. ^ Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国教育法), promulgated by the National People’s Congress on March 18, 1995, amended April 29, 2021, http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_zcfg/zcfg_jyfl/202107/t20210730_547843.html.
  25. ^ Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国高等教育法), promulgated by the National People’s Congress on August 29, 1998, amended December 29, 2018, http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_zcfg/zcfg_jyfl/202204/t20220421_620257.html.
  26. ^ Implementation Regulations for the Law for Promoting Private Education of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国民办教育促进法实施条例), issued by the State Council on March 5, 2004, amended April 7, 2021, http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_zcfg/zcfg_jyxzfg/202110/t20211029_575965.html.
  27. ^ Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools (中华人民共和国中外合作办学条例), issued by the State Council on March 1, 2003, amended July 18, 2013, http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_zcfg/zcfg_jyxzfg/202204/t20220422_620494.html.
  28. ^ Administrative Measures for the Enrollment and Cultivation of International Students by Schools (学校招收和培养国际学生管理办法), issued by the State Council on July 1, 2017, http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A02/s5911/moe_621/201705/t20170516_304735.html.
  29. ^ Zeng, Chen. “Strategic Management and Development Trend of Sino-Foreign Cooperative University in the New Era of Open Education Development.” Budapest International Research and Critics in Linguistics and Education (BirLE) Journal 3, no. 2 (May 10, 2020): 919–25. https://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v3i2.986.
  30. ^ Miani, Mattia, and Shih-Ching (Susan) Picucci-Huang. “Learning and Teaching in Transnational Education in China: Voices from Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities.” Chinese Education & Society 56, no. 5–6 (November 2, 2023): 303–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/10611932.2024.2303912.
  31. ^ Miani, Mattia, and Shih-Ching (Susan) Picucci-Huang. “Learning and Teaching in Transnational Education in China: Voices from Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities.” Chinese Education & Society 56, no. 5–6 (November 2, 2023): 303–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/10611932.2024.2303912.
  32. ^ Fu, Qiang. “Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Education: An Effective Approach for the Transformation and Development of Local Universities.” International Conference on Advanced Education, Service and Management 3 (2019): 434–38. https://doi.org/10.35532/JSSS.V3.097..
  33. ^ Miani, Mattia, and Shih-Ching (Susan) Picucci-Huang. “Learning and Teaching in Transnational Education in China: Voices from Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities.” Chinese Education & Society 56, no. 5–6 (November 2, 2023): 303–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/10611932.2024.2303912.
  34. ^ Fu, Qiang. “Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Education: An Effective Approach for the Transformation and Development of Local Universities.” International Conference on Advanced Education, Service and Management 3 (2019): 434–38. https://doi.org/10.35532/JSSS.V3.097..
  35. ^ Zeng, Chen. “Strategic Management and Development Trend of Sino-Foreign Cooperative University in the New Era of Open Education Development.” Budapest International Research and Critics in Linguistics and Education (BirLE) Journal 3, no. 2 (May 10, 2020): 919–25. https://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v3i2.986.
  36. ^ Fu, Qiang. “Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Education: An Effective Approach for the Transformation and Development of Local Universities.” International Conference on Advanced Education, Service and Management 3 (2019): 434–38. https://doi.org/10.35532/JSSS.V3.097..
  37. ^ Zeng, Chen. “Strategic Management and Development Trend of Sino-Foreign Cooperative University in the New Era of Open Education Development.” Budapest International Research and Critics in Linguistics and Education (BirLE) Journal 3, no. 2 (May 10, 2020): 919–25. https://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v3i2.986.
  38. ^ Fu, Qiang. “Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Education: An Effective Approach for the Transformation and Development of Local Universities.” International Conference on Advanced Education, Service and Management 3 (2019): 434–38. https://doi.org/10.35532/JSSS.V3.097..
  39. ^ Miani, Mattia, and Shih-Ching (Susan) Picucci-Huang. “Learning and Teaching in Transnational Education in China: Voices from Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities.” Chinese Education & Society 56, no. 5–6 (November 2, 2023): 303–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/10611932.2024.2303912.
  40. ^ Miani, Mattia, and Shih-Ching (Susan) Picucci-Huang. “Learning and Teaching in Transnational Education in China: Voices from Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities.” Chinese Education & Society 56, no. 5–6 (November 2, 2023): 303–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/10611932.2024.2303912.
  41. ^ Zeng, Chen. “Strategic Management and Development Trend of Sino-Foreign Cooperative University in the New Era of Open Education Development.” Budapest International Research and Critics in Linguistics and Education (BirLE) Journal 3, no. 2 (May 10, 2020): 919–25. https://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v3i2.986.
  42. ^ China Education Online. "Report on Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools." 中国教育在线. Accessed July 14, 2020. https://www.eol.cn/e_coop/gol/html/report2020/content.shtml
  43. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  44. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. "关于印发《高等学校人才培养工作评估方案》的通知." December 6, 2021. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk/zhengce/guizhang/202112/t20211206_585024.html.
  45. ^ China Education Online. "Report on Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools." 中国教育在线. Accessed July 14, 2020. https://www.eol.cn/e_coop/gol/html/report2020/content.shtml
  46. ^ Ying, Tang, and Quan Wenjing. “Understanding the Sino-Foreign Cooperative Education in China: A Bibliometric Approach.” International Journal of Educational Reform, August 9, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/10567879231193344.
  47. ^ Ma, Jieming, Chili Li, and Minming Gu. “Transnational Education in Sino-Foreign Cooperative Universities: Modes, Benefits and Concerns.” International Journal of Information and Education Technology 9, no. 9 (2019): 629–33. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2019.9.9.1279.
  48. ^ Fu, Qiang. “Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Education: An Effective Approach for the Transformation and Development of Local Universities.” International Conference on Advanced Education, Service and Management 3 (2019): 434–38. https://doi.org/10.35532/JSSS.V3.097..
  49. ^ Zeng, Chen. “Strategic Management and Development Trend of Sino-Foreign Cooperative University in the New Era of Open Education Development.” Budapest International Research and Critics in Linguistics and Education (BirLE) Journal 3, no. 2 (May 10, 2020): 919–25. https://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v3i2.986.
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