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Sikh–Wahhabi War

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Sikh–Wahhabi War
Date21 December, 1826 - 8 May, 1831 (4 years, 4 months, and 17 days)
Location
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab, modern day Pakistan
Result
  • Sikh victory
  • Destruction of the Wahhabi movement
Belligerents
Sikh Empire

Mujahideen
Kingdom of Amb
Peshawari Sardars
Pashtun tribes
Supported by:

Commanders and leaders
Ranjit Singh
Sher Singh
Hari Singh Nalwa
Budh Singh Sandhanwalia
Ilahi Bakhsh
Akali Hanuman Singh
Gulab Singh
Yar Muhammad  †
Sultan Mohammad Khan Surrendered		 Syed Ahmad Barelvi †
Baqar Ali †
Allahbakhsh Khan †
Shah Ismail Dehlvi †
Mirza Hayat Dehlvi †
Khadi Khan  †
Sayyid Ahmad Ali  †
Mir Faiz Ali of Gorakhpur  †
Yar Muhammad (defected)
Mir Painda Khan (til 1829)
Pashtun chiefs (deserted in 1830)
Mir Alam Khan of Bajaur
Fatah Khan of Panjtar
Sarbuland Khan of Tanawal  †
Habibullah Khan of Swat
Sultan Zabardast Khan of Muzaffarabad
Sultan Najaf Khan of Khatur
Abdul Ghafur Khan of Agror
Nasir Khan of Nandhar
Strength
33,000 under Budh Singh[2]
20,000 reserves[2]		 80,000- 100,000 tribals[3][4]
20,000 Barakzai chiefs army
Casualties and losses
Light Heavy

The Sikh–Wahhabi War was fought between the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Wahhabi movement led by Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi. The conflict arose from Sayyid Ahmad's attempts to establish an Islamic state in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent based on the Sharia law.

Following Sayyid Ahmad’s declaration of jihad, he gained support among Pashtun tribes and launched efforts to organize a theocratic state. The movement imposed reforms, including taxation and social restructuring, which often clashed with local traditions such as the Pashtunwali which caused further alieanation of their Pashtun allies. The Wahhabi movement experienced desertion from their Pashtun allies as a result of the Sayyid Reforms, despite their early success in consolidating authority in the Khyber area.

The Battle of Balakot in 1831 saw the end of the war. In the battle the Sayyid and many of his important supporters were killed. This put a stop to the Wahhabi movement's plans toward territorial expansion.

Background

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Syed Ahmad Barelvi was born in 1786 in Rae Bareilly. A religious leader and military figure, he studied under famous Islamic scholars in Delhi. He joined the forces of Amir Khan Pindari, became head of bodyguards and remained so until the army of Amir Khan was disbanded in 1819.[5] Then he returned to Delhi and put himself forward as a religious leader. He was mainly driven by the idea of bringing back an Islamic state in India,[6] focusing on Jihad to take on the Sikhs and set up Islamic rule, seeing them as a smaller threat than the British.[7][8]

Political map of India in the year 1823
Map of India in 1823

In the early nineteenth century, both local and provincial politics in Punjab underwent significant changes. Following Ranjit Singh's conquest of Lahore in 1799 and the subjugation of other Sikh chiefs, he pursued an expansionist policy westward. Due to the Treaty of Amritsar (1809), he was unable to expand eastward beyond the Sutlej. The ongoing Durrani civil war helped the Sikhs consolidate their power in the former territories of the Durrani Empire. By 1825, Ranjit Singh had conquered Attock, Multan, and Kashmir, delivering a devastating blow to the Afghans at the Battle of Nowshera. By the time Sayyid Ahmad arrived, the entire Hazara region had already fallen into Sikh hands.[9]

Migration to the Frontier

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Syed Ahmad Khan set off from Bareilly to the Frontier in January 1826, traveling via Dalmau, Fatehpur Sikri, Gwalior, and Tonk. Maharaja Daulat Rao Sindhia welcomed him while he was at Gwalior, where he also met Hindu Rao, Sindhia's brother-in-law. Later, Syed Ahmad sent Hindu Rao from the Frontier an important message. Amir Khan and his son Yaziruddaula, the Nawabs of Tonk, supported his cause and provided him with many forms of assistance. Syed Ahmad proceeded with his expedition, passing through Sindh, Baluchistan, and Rajputana before arriving at Peshawar in November 1826.[10]

During the roughly ten-month expedition, there was both excitement and doubt. While some were moved by Sayyid Ahmad's jihadi principles, others doubted his ill-prepared army could beat the Sikhs. Sayyid Ahmad made significant trips in Tonk and Gwalior, where he won the local leaders' support.[11] While Nawab Amir Khan and his son backed him in Tonk with money and military supplies, Hindu Rao and the Sindhia family hosted him and gave him presents in Gwalior.[1][11]

Syed Ahmad's presence generated admiration and mistrust as he traveled across Sind and Baluchistan. While some in Sindh swore loyalty, others saw him and his supporters as British agents.[12] Although the leaders of Sind and Bahawalpur did not accept invitations to join the jihad, Sibgatullah Shah, the Pir of Pagara, joined it in hope for military success. Syed Ahmad went to Baluchistan, where he sought the backing of Mehrab Khan, the governing Mehran, after leaving his family in the hands of the Hurs. Mehrab Khan, however, refused to join the jihad, claiming that Abdullah Khan Durrani's men posed a threat.[1]

Syed Ahmad came to Peshawar, which was governed by Yar Muhammad Khan, on behalf of the Sikh Darbar in November 1826. Unsupported by Yar Muhammad, Syed Ahmad relocated to Charsadda, where his presence sparked enthusiasm among residents fed up with Sikh domination.[13] Said Muhammad Khan and other Barakzai elders promised loyalty and extended hospitality, but they chose to put their own political goals before of providing tangible assistance. During his stay in Charsadda, Sayyid Ahmad organized supporters, acquired supplies, and planned his offensive against the Sikhs.[14]

Preperation for War

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Syed Ahmad established a base in the Khudu Khel Hills and then made a proclamation to Maharaja Ranjit Singh threatening to go to war if he did not comply with certain Islamic Shariat requirements. Ranjit Singh shrugged the command away.[7] In order to mobilize support and resources for the jihad against the Sikhs, Syed Ahmad turned to his loyal lieutenants, Muhammad Ismail Khan, Baqar Ali, and Maulvis Abdul Hai, who gave passionate speeches and the Syed himself states his reasons in full, for commencing battle against the forces of Ranjit Singh at Panjtar in a Speech:

“I have been thinking of a place of peace in India where I should take the Muslims and organise a Jihad. Although Hindustan is a sprawling country with an expanse of hundreds of miles I could not find a suitable place to which I could migrate. … Some of your brothers…told me that their country was the most suitable place for the purpose. They also told me that if I were to migrate to their country, hundreds of thousands of Muslims would join me, particularly because Ranjit Singh was perpetrating great excesses in their land, putting the local population to severe torture and humiliating and bringing disgrace upon them. Ranjit Singh’s men, I was told, burnt the mosques, destroyed the crops relieved the local population of all they had and even took away women and children to be sold as serfs…Believing what your brothers told me to be correct. I considered it advisable to emigrate to your country to unite and call the Muslims to arms for launching a jihad against the infidels in order to rescue our brethren from their clutches.”[15]


When Budh Singh's Sikh army reached Khairabad, Sayyid Ahmad sensed a chance to take action. In addition to local rivalry amongst tribal chiefs like Khawas Khan and Amir Khan, Amir Khan Khattak of Akora Khattak encouraged Syed Ahmad to begin his campaign from his region.[2][14]

First campaign

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Sardar Budh Singh Sandhanwalia was a collateral cousin of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, as were his brothers, Atar Singh and Lahna Singh.[16] After being sent to Hazara to serve under Hari Singh Nalwa, Budh Singh was assigned to Akora, a strategically important site across the Indus River approximately 18 kilometers from Attock. Khattak Afghans, under the leadership of Najaf Khan, populated the majority of Akora. They retreated to the hills after the Sikhs took Peshawar.[16]

Battle of Akora Khattak

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Main article: Battle of Akora Khattak

In December 1826, Sardar Budh Singh Sandhanwalia lay at Akora with a force of about 4,000 men.[16] Syed Ahmad Barelvi, at the head of an allied army of Hindustanis, Kandharis, Yusafzais, and Khataks, planned a suprise attack against the Sikh troops.[17] The attack, led by Allahbakhsh Khan, was launched in the early hours of 21 December 1826, catching the Sikhs off guard as they slept in the cold.[16]

The first attack led to considerable losses among the Sikhs. However, Budh Singh quickly rallied his men and launched a counterattack which forced the enemy to retreat. The Ghazis retreated from the field and the hills.[16] While the Sikhs held their ground, they had suffered about 500 casualties. The army of the Syed lost 36 Hindustanis and 46 Kandharis, including Maulvi Baqar Ali of Patna, and their commander, Allahbakhsh Khan. The outcome of the battle remains disputed. Some sources describe it as a victory for Syed Ahmad Barelvi,[17][18][19] while others claim it was a victory for the Sikhs.[12][16][20][21][22]

After this encounter, Syed Ahmad Barelvi shifted his base to Sitana, situated at the foot of the Mahaban mountains on the west bank of the Indus River, in the territory of the Yusafzais.[16] While Budh Singh retreated to Hazro.[17][19]

Proclamation as Imam

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In the course of this period, many Pashtun tribes joined the movement of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and pledged their allegiance (Bay'ah) to his call for jihad. Among these were the Khadi Khan, the eminent chief of the Mandanr tribe from Hund, who became one of the prominent lieutenants of Syed Ahmad. He was later joined by Ashraf Khan of Zaida, who continued to be one of the closest associates of Syed Ahmad till his death.[19]

On 11 January 1827, a gathering was held at Akora, which was attended by top leaders of the Ghazi forces and leading members of the local people. It was decided that Muslims from both banks of the Indus would be gathered, and Syed Ahmad was declared an Imam by his followers. From then onwards, the Hindustani Mujahideen started to call him Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful).[23]

The jihad movement planned to attack Hazro, a significant trading center in Sikh territory, during Syed Ahmad's stay at Bazar, Hund. Despite a small garrison and single cannon, supporters argued that capturing Hazro was crucial for achieving the movement's goals, despite the small defenses.[24]

Battle of Hazro (1827)

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Forty Kandaharis and a group of local Pashtuns stormed Hazro, taking the fortified building and sacking the mandi. Massive losses resulted from the Sikh troops' counterattack. The majority of Pashtuns escaped, and many were slain in the process. Syed Ahmad ensured the escape of the surviving Mujahideen by sending soldiers to rescue them.[24] Sardar Budh Singh Sandhanwalia was able to maintain his position in spite of difficulties, and just two Hindustani Mujahideen were slain. Eventually, the Ghazis retreated to their hiding spots.[23]

Battle of Shaidu

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Main article: Battle of Shaidu

Pashtun tribes from various areas began to gather under the command of Syed Ahmad Barelvi, and in two months, their number reached 100,000 men. The Barakzai chiefs of Peshawar joined the movement, and their army consisted of 20,000 men and 8 guns.[4]

In response, a Sikh force under Sardar Budh Singh Sandhanwalia concentrated at the village of Pirpai, 32 km south of Peshawar and 30 km from Akora. The Sikh army, comprising about 10,000 troops and 12 cannon, was reinforced by Raja Gulab Singh, Raja Suchet Singh, and Atariwala Sardars.[25] Budh Singh was able to obtain the neutrality of the Barakzai chief of Peshawar through diplomatic negotiations which the Mujahideens saw as betrayal.[23][26][27]

The Sikhs held their ground even though the Ghazis pressed them heavily for a long time. When their supplies began to run low, Budh Singh made a sally. The Sikh artillery inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, forcing them to retreat. It is estimated that nearly 6,000 Mujahideen were killed or wounded in the battle.[23][28] Historian Murray affirms that the Sikh cavalry followed the fleeing Ghazis, and every horseman is said to have slain fifteen to twenty of the retreating warriors.[23] Syed Ahmad Barelvi himself took shelter in the Swat hills the jihad movement suffered a crushing defeat.[29][30] In recognition of the Sikh triumph, Maharaja Ranjit Singh sent congratulatory presents to Budh Singh Sandhanwalia and the other leaders.[23][30]

Recovery

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The first, fast wave of the jihad movement in the Frontier ended with the loss at Shaidu. The steadfast commitment of his followers from Bengal, Bihar, Hindustan, and Kandahar allowed the movement to continue even though the loss and Syed Ahmad's declining health threatened to put an end to it. A more restrained and measured phase of the jihad movement in the area emerged as a result of this difficult period.[31][32][33]

Consolidation of Power

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After the defeat at Shaidu, Syed Ahmad Barelvi took refuge with Fatah Khan of Panjtar, a staunch opponent of Sikh rule. With the support of Fatah Khan, Syed Ahmad began consolidating his power in the area by forcing the neighboring tribal chiefs to unconditionally support his jihad against the Sikhs.[34] This campaign included the coercion or subjugation of leaders like Mir Babu Khan of Sadhum and Ahmad Khan of Hoti, the latter being killed for his insufficient commitment.[35] Syed Ahmad's influence was extended over the Yusafzai Valley and tribes such as the Afridis, Mohmands, and Khalils were won over to his cause against the Sikhs.[35][36]

Missionary tours

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Syed Ahmad also undertook long missionary tours of Buner and Swat, persuading the local people to unite, give up social and religious practices he deemed un-Islamic, and support his cause.[32] Letters were dispatched to neighboring rulers, including those of Chitral, Kashmir, and Bukhara, seeking alliances and cooperation.[37] More importantly, he gained the support of discontented leaders in Hazara, where resentment against the harsh rule of Hari Singh Nalwa, the Sikh general and governor, was growing.[37]

Hazara region by James Abbott.

Kashmir had a central place in Syed Ahmad's strategic plans. Capture of this region would give him a secure and resource-rich base with its natural defenses and majority Muslim population.[38] Syed Ahmad had earlier stated his intention to move toward Kashmir once his position in Peshawar was fully secured, the ruler of Chitral and several other local chiefs promising cooperation to that end. In preparation for this campaign, he positioned himself in Panjtar, while simultaneously dispatching Shah Ismail on a reconnaissance and preaching mission to the Pakhli area.[39] Shah Ismail's endeavors in Amb and Sittana effectively enhanced support for the movement.[38]

Recall of Shah Ismail

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Syed Ahmad Barelvi's recall of Shah Ismail to Panjtar in late 1827 marked the end of this phase of the Jihad movement. The reason for his recall is still up for debate.[40] Sayyid Ahmad's intention to deal with the dangers posed by Barakzai leaders, who were impeding the passage of Mujahidin caravans from India and mobilizing local tribes against him, might be one explanation.[39] Some caravans reportedly experienced delays of up to two months when passing across a pass, most likely between Ziarat Kaka Sahib and Kohat.[41]

Second campaign

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In order to overcome the Barakzai chiefs of Peshawar, Syed Ahmad Barelvi gathered money through Hindu moneylenders and looked for tribal backing.[42] The Barakzais barred reinforcements and drove out Mujahidin supporters for betraying their loyalty. Syed Ahmad stepped up his jihad efforts after consulting with tribes and obtaining a fatwa.[43] He intended to take Peshawar in order to eradicate the Barakzais.

Battle of Utmanzai (1828)

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Syed Ahmad faced several obstacles in his attempts to form coalitions and oppose the Barakzai leaders, including betrayals and shifting allegiances. The Khyber chiefs undermined his campaign by withdrawing their support despite early agreements.[42][43] The Battle of Utmanzai, in which Yar Muhammad Khan stopped Sayyid Ahmad's army close to the Kabul River, around 30 kilometers from Peshawar, was the result of this disunity. Some of Syed Ahmad's supporters switched to Yar Muhammad Khan's side as the fight continued all day. Syed Ahmad and his troops had to flee under cover of darkness due to escalating losses.[35]

Battle of Haidru

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Main article: Battle of Haidru (1828)

Following his defeat in Peshawar, Sayyid Ahmad shifted his attention to capturing the Sikh-held Attock fort, which he thought would protect Hazara and Peshawar and pave the way for an invasion of Punjab. But the scheme failed when Khadi Khan of Hund warned the fort's Sikh commander. Syed Ahmad launched an attack on the village of Haidru in retribution, ordering the massacre of its Muslim and Hindu residents. A counterattack by Sikh commander Hari Singh Nalwa led to the killing of over three-fourths of Syed's Ghazis. Across the Indus River, Syed Ahmad barely made it.[35] Syed Ahmad decided to punish Khadi Khan of Hund, who was secretly in alliance with the Sikhs, the Syed defeated and killed Khadi Khan in the battle of Hund in 1829.[44]

Battle of Zaida

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Syed Ahmad, after moving to Zaida, faced skirmishes with the Barakzai forces led by Yar Muhammad Khan. Despite initial attempts at peace, a surprise night attack by the Mujahideen resulted in the death of hundreds of Barakzai soldiers and the capture of significant military supplies. Yar Muhammad Khan, severely wounded, died shortly after.[45][46] The presence of Jean-Baptiste Ventura in Peshawar, on a mission for Ranjit Singh, prevented a potential attack on the city by the Wahhabis.[47]

Attempted Invasion of Kashmir

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In 1827, Syed Ahmad dispatched Shah Ismail to examine Hazara region with the intention of capturing Kashmir as a strategic foothold. He defeated Yar Muhammad Khan to solidify his dominance and then turned his attention back to Kashmir. Sikh commander Hari Singh strengthened the unsecured Sikh garrison at Tarbela, thwarting his ambitions after he learnt of a chance to attack it.[47]

The chief of Amb, Mir Painda Khan, who had been fighting the Sikhs for years, sent a message to Syed Ahmad. Despite his prior battles against the Sikhs, Painda Khan wanted to meet with Syed Ahmad but refused to let the Mujahideen pass through Amb because he was afraid of frustrating the Sikhs. In retaliation, Syed Ahmad pushed through and won the battle of Amb against Painda Khan.[45] In order to drive out the Mujahideen, Painda Khan then turned to Sikh leader Hari Singh for assistance. After that, Syed Ahmad's men took Phulra without encountering any opposition. However, a surprise Sikh attack started a battle that killed the lives of several Mujahidin, including Mir Faiz Ali of Gorakhpur. This setback at Phulra prevented the Mujahidin from advancing into Kashmir.[48]

Proclamation as Caliph

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Sultan Mohammad Khan. Watercolour by a Company artist, Punjab, ca.1865

In 1830, Ahmad Khan of Hoti and Sultan Mohammad Khan of Peshawar rallied the Barakzais against Syed Ahmad and the Mujahidin, motivated by retribution and fear of Syed Ahmad's growing dominance. This resulted in the Battle of Mayar, when the Mujahideen prevailed despite suffering heavy losses due to fierce combat.[49] The Mujahideens subsequently captured Peshawar proclaiming Syed Ahmad Barelvi as a Caliph (Khalifat-ul-Musalmin).[36][50][51] He installed himself as the ruler and struck coins with the high-sounding inscription: Ahmad the Just, Defender of the Faith, the glitter of whose sword scattereth destruction among infidels.[36] This marked the Zenith of the Syed's power.[52]

Reforms

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At the height of his power, Syed Ahmad retired to Panjtar, where he led a simple life focused on fasting and prayer. He introduced several reforms based on Shariat principles. He deployed followers to collect tithes, penalties, and cesses and imposed Ushr contributions for public benefit. Due to a lack of women, he stopped selling daughters and suggested getting married young without any money. He arranged Hindustani followers' weddings with Pashtun females and wed Fatah Khan's daughter.[53] He disapproved of fireworks and the making of sweet pudding, forbade Tazias during Shia celebrations, and denounced pilgrimages to the graves of saints. Syed Ahmad underlined how crucial it is to strictly follow these measures.[53]

Pashtun massacre of Indian muslims

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The local community placed a high value on wealth, and the Yusufzais and Khattaks rejected Syed Ahmad's reforms since money was hard to come by.[53] There was a great deal of hostility since the changes, especially the ban on selling females, endangered their financial interests. Because the Sayyid's supporters had called for free marriage with Pathan girls, a covert council of Pathan authorities plotted to eliminate them.[53][54] A bonfire was built on a Friday to commemorate the slaughter, which was indicated by the code word "makai" (maize). As part of the conspiracy, the Peshawar leaders put Maulvi Mazhar Ali and his associates to death on the appointed Friday. Thousands of Syed Ahmad's supporters slaughtered.[53][55] The Yusafzais moved into Panjtar in revenge in hope of capturing and murdering Syed Ahmad. With the help of his father-in-law, Fatah Khan, Sayyid Ahmad managed to escape with a few followers, seeking refuge in the mountains of Pakhli and Dhamtaur after crossing the Indus River.[53]

Hari Singh Nalwa's Invasion of Yusafzai Samah

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Following the massacre of the Indian Muslims, the Syed left his Yusafzai hosts. As a result of the Sayyid's power being destroyed, Hari Singh Nalwa arrived with 25,000 troops and destroyed the Yusafzai Samah area.[56] He also enslaved a number of Pashtun women and brought them to Lahore.[56]

Battle of Balakot

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Main article: Battle of Balakot

With an army of about 5,000 soldiers, Kanwar Sher Singh landed in the area in May 1831 with Pratab Singh Atariwala and Ratan Singh Garjakhia. They surrounded Balakot on all sides and besieged it. The Sikhs were progressively encircling the Syed, who had a force of between 700 to 3,000 men, primarily peasants.[57] The Sikhs struck as they drew closer to the Syed's home, mowing down the peasants and shooting Syed Ahmad Barelvi. They cut off his head and put it on display, then burned his body and the bodies of his followers who had died.[58][59][60] Maulvi Ismail and Bahram Khan were among the approximately 500 Sayyid supporters who perished. Tents, swivels, swords, horses, and an elephant were among the items taken by the Sikhs from the Syed.[58]

Aftermath

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After the Balakot Disaster, the Mujahideen lacked a central base, leadership, or a clear course of action, leading to numerous relocations and becoming pawns of local leaders.[61] Indian Muslims did not provide troops or financial support, leading to a decline in support for Syed Ahmad's cause.[61]

After receiving of the triumph, the Maharaja Ranjit Singh gave the messenger a turban, two shawls, and two gold bracelets worth Rs. 200. In addition to a letter of gratitude and the assurance of another jagir, Sher Singh received Rs. 50,000. In celebration of the victory against Syed Ahmad, Faqir Imam-ud-din, the governor of Gobindgarh Fort, was also ordered to light up the city of Amritsar and fire an 11-gun salute.[58]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b c Jalal 2009, p. 86.
  2. ^ a b c Khan 1968, p. 330.
  3. ^ Ahmad 1966, p. 49.
  4. ^ a b Khan 1968, p. 329.
  5. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 30.
  6. ^ Ansari 1976, p. 233.
  7. ^ a b Gupta 1978, p. 160.
  8. ^ Hedayetullah 1968, p. 129.
  9. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 14.
  10. ^ Khan 1968, p. 320.
  11. ^ a b Ahmad 1966, p. 43.
  12. ^ a b Jalal 2009, p. 87.
  13. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 61.
  14. ^ a b Qadir 2019, p. 62.
  15. ^ Husain 2018, p. 37.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Gupta 1978, p. 161.
  17. ^ a b c Khan 1968, p. 328.
  18. ^ Dani 1995, p. 130.
  19. ^ a b c Qadir 2019, p. 64.
  20. ^ Singh 1964, p. 273.
  21. ^ Hasrat 1977, p. 123.
  22. ^ Ahmad 1966, p. 47.
  23. ^ a b c d e f Gupta 1978, p. 162.
  24. ^ a b Qadir 2019, p. 65.
  25. ^ Ram 1977, p. 129.
  26. ^ Khan 1968, p. 331.
  27. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 69.
  28. ^ Ram 1977, p. 130.
  29. ^ Khan 1968, p. 332.
  30. ^ a b Qadir 2019, p. 70.
  31. ^ Khan 1968, p. 333.
  32. ^ a b Jalal 2009, p. 91.
  33. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 81.
  34. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 85.
  35. ^ a b c d Gupta 1978, p. 163.
  36. ^ a b c Hasrat 1977, p. 124.
  37. ^ a b Qadir 2019, p. 88.
  38. ^ a b Ahmad 1966, p. 50.
  39. ^ a b Jalal 2009, p. 92.
  40. ^ Ahmad 1966, p. 51.
  41. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 91.
  42. ^ a b Jalal 2009, p. 93.
  43. ^ a b Qadir 2019, p. 97.
  44. ^ Ahmad 1966, p. 52.
  45. ^ a b Jalal 2009, p. 96.
  46. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 118.
  47. ^ a b Ahmad 1966, p. 53.
  48. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 122.
  49. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 137.
  50. ^ Ahmad 1966, p. 55.
  51. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 138.
  52. ^ Gupta 1978, p. 164.
  53. ^ a b c d e f Gupta 1978, p. 165.
  54. ^ Jalal 2009, p. 102.
  55. ^ Ahmad 1966, p. 57.
  56. ^ a b Husain 2018, p. 42.
  57. ^ Qadir 2019, p. 144.
  58. ^ a b c Gupta 1978, p. 166.
  59. ^ Jalal 2009, p. 104.
  60. ^ Sethi 1950, p. 174.
  61. ^ a b Qadir 2019, p. 151.

Works cited

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