User:Arawoke/sandbox

• "For indigenous people throughout the tropical world, white sails on the ocean's horizon have often presaged death. For the Indians in the Amazon's green 'ocean' in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, death was heralded by the arrival of steam launches or gunboats bearing armed men hungry for rubber. Technology had moved on from the time of the conquistadors, and killing and slave-driving had become more efficient. Reclusive tribesmen living today in remote corners of the Peruvian selvas inherited the memory of a catastrophe proportional to the genocides of the Final Solution and the Armenian massacres."

• ”Taking a general view of the Indians in the Putumayo, I find that the Huitotos, Ocainas, and Ricigoros are the most docile and peace-loving, in that way more easily conquered ; while the Boras, Andoques and other races are of a higher type, brave, intelligent, and consequently, in the attempts made by whites to conquer them, they have suffered most and are now almost exterminated.” - Joseph Woodroffe’s book pages 158-159

• "All these tribes, fifteen years ago, amounted to over twenty thousand persons; to-day they do not reach ten thousand. Desolation invaded these selvas together with the Aranas, worse even than the cholera morbus and the bubonic, terrible and awful plagues that from time to time leave Asia to traverse other parts of the globe, sowing panic, pain, death, and mourning." - Benjamin Saldana Rocca.

"They were ordered by the manager, Senor Sanchez, and by Gleeman and Cordoba, who used to lead them on these expeditions, that if they could not catch the Indians they were to fire on them. Asked why this was done, he said it was to frighten the Indians and make them come in, because if they were killed for running away they would be less likely to run." "

See rebellion of Teodomrio Gutiérrez Cuevas in Puno, Peru. Conflicts between the government of Peru and the indigenous people of Peru were more prevalent between 1914-1918 than this editor had previously thought. Also refer to rebellion of Atenas 1916, rebellion against Casa Fitzcarrald around 1915 and other caucheros around that time. Pacaya River also saw an indigenous uprising.

• find information on Teniente Aurelio E. O’Donovan, responsible for a case of human trafficking in 1912.

• Citation for the 1908 attacks against Colombian estates to be motivated by the seizure of indigenous escape routes away from Arana's estates. See note that only appears in editor.

Gaspar de Pinell referred to Casa Arana y Hernandez (presumably Cecilio Hernandez) as the sole rulers of the Igarparana and Caraprana rivers.

According to Historia de la ultima hija del exodo Bora, there was a rebellion at Santa Catalina against Carlos Seminario, a manager that the natives regarded as cruel. page 5. Seminario had an indigenous concubine that was Ocaina, and he had a child with her. He fled Santa Catalina, leaving his concubine and child behind, only taking a few subordinates with him as guides and bodyguards. Seminario's concubine and child were killed by the rebels and the storeroom of Santa Catalina was looted. The native nations that apparently participated in this rebellion were "Pijuayo, Cardinal, Macaw, Nonuya, Huanchaco and the Witotos" while the Aguaje nation refused to participate. The account states that Seminario returned with the Peruvian military, a new Maloca was constructed, and a dance was held there. Seminario had the natives imprisoned when they were distracted at the dance, and the Peruvian military executed all of the natives in attendance, with the exception of the orators father. page 7-8 of the document. The foreman [still Seminario?] took the remaining natives at Santa Catalina to Providencia, on the Igarparana River. A group of the Aguaje nation was transported via S.S. Liberal from Providencia to Remanso. Years later, they were transported again from Remanso to the mouth of the Algodon River, by orders of Carlos and Miguel Loayza and well as J.C. Arana. From there, a large group travelled along a road that connected to the Peruvian military garrison at Pijuayal, in Peruvian territory. This group reached the Yahuasyacu river after days of walking. The land was already occupied by Huitotos, who had migrated from the Putumayo as well.

^^ COMPARE WITH PAGES 252-254 OF DEPUES DEL CAUCHO!

Wall of citations

On Correrias

Main article: Putumayo_genocide § Correrias

Stefano Varese 2002, Salt of the Mountain

pages 125-126

Huertas Castillo, 2004

page 52

• Uriarte, Javier; Martínez-Pinzón, Felipe; Cardemil-Krause, Cristóbal (2019). Intimate Frontiers: A Literary Geography of the Amazon, page 56

Hildebrando Fuentes 1908

page 122

Liberation through land 1998

page 86 and others

Carlos Valcarcel 2004 [republished]

page 38

AJRC

page 13: "Premediated attacks on tribal communities in order to enslave."

• page 109: "The worst stations are those towards the Caqueta, I am told, and the most dangerous to visit on account of the Indians, the Boras or Poras being stronger than the Huitotos, or more disposed to resist the gentle process of civilisation inculcated by the Peruvian Amazon Company.

• Page 250 of AJRC is very important for the Boras. Casement noted that accusations of laziness were levied against the Boras and they were the most successful at resisting "conquest" by the caucheros.

page 243 repeats the accusations of laziness. Cannibalism was also an accusation levied against the Boras. "The Indian, who is stout enough to resist enslavement, is always in the wrong and therefore a cannibal."

• Cesar Cipriani, pages 56-57 of his official report via 1906.

Hardenburg 1912

-Based on a report from El Comercio of Lima. The author believes that a new commissario will put an end to the practices of correrias in the madre de dios area. ^ The author also implicates rubber merchants as well as LOCAL AUTHORITIES with perpetrating these correrias. - page 24 of Hardenburg 1912

^ Same article can be cited with

"Urged on by the profit resulting from the sale of boys, robust youths, and young women (frescas mujeres), they tear children from mothers and wives from husbands without pity, and pass them from hand to hand as slaves. It were well to take the savages from their forests to use their labour and to cultivate their intelligence, but not for business purposes to make them victims of the knife and the lash.”

Benjamin Saldana Rocca referred to the correrias as "wholesale slaughter of Indians"

PAGES 297-298 OF HARDENBURG

"Lest this may be thought a vague indictment, I append a further extract from the same Report, this time directed by the Apostolic Prefect of the district of San Francisco de Ucayali to the Minister of Justice. It is dated from Contamana, on the Ucayali, the chief place of the province, on the 27th August, 1907, and deals at some length with the condition of religion and education on that great river, the main feeder and source of the Amazon, and one that has been largely occupied and in civilised hands for the better part of the last century:—

“‘Before speaking of the region of the Ucayali I wish to draw the attention of the Supreme Government to the infamous trade in buying and selling boys and girls which for years has been practised in these parts of the montaña (i.e., the forest region), in spite of the repeated prohibitions of the Government, just as if these poor savages were irrational beings (seres irracionales), or, to be still more clear, just as if they were sheep or horses. This is intolerable in such an illustrious country as Peru. This trade excites and foments the hunting (correrías, literally “chasings”) so frequently indulged in of these poor savages, so as to seize them in their houses in the moment when they least expect it. This is done by different traders (comerciantes) by means of their peóns, particularly some of those of the Upper Ucayali. I could cite many examples in confirmation of this, but{298} I will cite one alone which took place last year (1906). Here it is:—

“‘The Campas Indians of the River Ubiriqui were dwelling peacefully in their houses when suddenly, as is reported, there fell upon them men sent on a correría by one of the traders of the Upper Ucayali, who lives near Unini. These, without warning, attacked the innocent Campas, seizing those whom they could, killing many of them so that few escaped their cruelties, so that even up to now the number of their victims is not known. It is certain that many bodies have been found in a state of putrefaction, and that all the houses of the Ubiriqui are burnt. These deeds have exasperated the Indians (los infieles), and if no effective remedy is applied, later on we shall not be safe even in the mission villages (pueblocitos de la misión), nor shall we be able to spread our winning over and civilising of the savages who dwell in our forests.’ (P. 783 and following of the Report.)"

On the prevalence of corruption during the rubber boom

• Refer to this sandbox's information on ARISTIDES MOYA DEL BARCO

Percy Fawcett, on Bolivia

• Refer to page 44 of Exploration Fawcett as transcribed on Wikiquote. Details the dangers imposed against "honest" officials and the common preference to accept bribery instead of angering "powerful people." The latter entailed raising the "arm of vengeance" in an area where "life was very cheap"

Corruption on the Putumayo

• A deponent of BSR, Reynaldo Torres, claimed that Victor Macedo was arrested in 1903 along with several other perpetrators of the Ocaina massacre at La Chorrera. According to Torres Macedo escaped from custody and Arana's company covered the incident up through a bribe of 500,000 Peruvian soles, equivalent to about £50,000 at the time.

-^ A CATALOGUE OF CRIME 1912 PAGE 105

• Page 41-42 of Hardenburg 1912 emphasizes that David Cazes was in a good position to be aware of conditions on the Putumayo River however Cazes swore that he knew nothing. The page also says "No one can enter the territory of the rubber company without the permission of the Company’s representative in Iquitos. The twenty-one constables whom the Peruvian Government kept in the Putumayo in those days had all been bribed by the English traders and shut their eyes to what was happening in the jungle."

• Page 35 of Michael Taussig's Shamanism, Colonialism... claims that Cazes company, the Iquitos Trading Company, was dependent on Arana's enterprise.

• Cazes also did not report any information regarding the seizure of El Pensamiento by Casa Arana. Cazes later implicated Arana with bribing the Prefect of Loreto, Carlos Zapata, a sum of £7,000. see CASEMENT 2003 PAGES 583, 645

-2 other sources, mentioned on Julio C. Arana's article claim that this bribe amounted to either £5,000 or £8,000. This bribe occurred after the 1908 attacks on Colombian estates and it arranged for the release of the perpetrators of that attack. Zapata also had indigenous people with scars that fled from Arana's estate to El Pensamiento sent back to Arana's territory after that affairs conclusion.

Parliamentary Papers V14 1913 page 315 stated that at the time of the 1910 investigatory commission there were two civil authorities under the Peruvian government in the Putumayo and they were being simultaneously paid for the government position as well as for their employment with Arana's company. One of these officials was the manager at Argelia and the "Acting Commissary of Police" while the other was the manager at "Sur Este" and "Juez de paz".

Exploitation of the Tapiche River

Barcia Hermanos

• Barcia Hermanos founded the "fundo" of Galicia on the Tapiche River in 1900.

• Referred to in the short list of "Importadores, Exportadores y Armadores based in Iquitos from Fuentes 1908 document page 29. At the time of publication Barcia hermanos brought in 250 Peruvian soles per "semester".

• Casa de Barcia Hermanos consisted of *Benito, *Jose and *Genoroso.

Exploitation of the Jurua River

Gregorio, Liberdade and Envira tributaries

Os Kaxinawa 2008 page 69 states that caucheros first began to appear around the "Riozinho da Liberdade" in 1883. Peruvians began to arrive prior to 1900.

Page 53 of Os Kaxinawa states that Scharff's "aviators" began to leave the Gregorio river area near the end of 1900. One group of aviators went to the Upper Purus River while another group went towards the Lower Breu River.

Page 56 states that Scharff crossed the Upper Purus River in 1901 and he left behind a trail of conflict and violence behind with Brazilian merchants and especially indigenous people.

Page 69 states that Scharff remained around the confluences of the Gregorio and Liberdade Rivers for about two years, during that time period he was in charge of more than 300 caucheros. "Members of the firm Hidalgo Ruiz & Cia, based near the mouth of the Moa River , will pass to work on the Gregório and Liberdade rivers for the Peruvian Efraim Ruiz, who will remain there for more than a year. when this patrão would be transferred as part of the parish to the mouth of the Breu River, not Alto Juruá (Mendonça, 1989: 210-11; Castello Branco, 1959: 142)99."

"The upper Tarauacá and Envira rivers were among the main destinations for these escapes, where other "raids" would again result in a large number of deaths: "In the Juruá there were serious encounters, but where the fighting reached its climax was on the banks of the Tarauacá and Embira, where the natives were pursued with greater intensity, fleeing from the riverbanks to the depths of the forests, at the watershed, where the bullets of the supposed civilized would hunt them down, decimating them, exterminating them in an atrocious manner" (Castello Branco, 1950: 13). The headwaters of the Gregório and Riozinho da Liberdade rivers, reaching the tributaries on the left bank of the middle Tarauacá river, in the period immediately after the stay of the rubber tappers Carlos Scharff and Efraim Ruiz, would continue to be occupied by several groups speaking Pano languages. Despite the "raids" they continued to suffer from the rubber tappers, the Rununawa and the Arara, led by the "chief" Tescon, armed with a large quantity of rifles and ammunition stolen from the rubber tappers and from the settlements, managed to maintain a large territory, also occupied by the Kaxinawá, Yawanawá, Iskunawa, Jaminawa and Katukina, where at first they continued to place obstacles to the expansion of the extractive activity. For several years, the main boss of Riozinho da Liberdade, Francisco Freire de Carvalho, kept a group of two dozen armed men to prevent attacks and robberies on the settlements and deaths of customers in his rubber plantations, attributed to "Tescon's Indians" (Cerqueira, 1958: 20). The forced migrations of the indigenous groups after the "raids" resulted in temporary camps and the opening of new malocas. The displacement and/or establishment, even if temporary, in old or new territories of other groups, traditional enemies, or those jealous of precariously maintained spaces in the back of rubber plantations, cornered by the activities of Brazilians and Peruvians, would lead, in several rivers, to conflicts between the indigenous people themselves. This was the case, for example, of the "devastating" attacks made by the Kulina (Madijá) on already reduced groups of Katukina and Kapanawa of the middle Tarauaca River." page 83-84 of os kaxinawa

x

• investigate the treason trial of Captain

Aristides Moya del Barco. states that Moya del Barco provided letters written by Loayza which implicated Loayza with the 1908 raids.

According to Parliamentary papers Volume 51 page 8 Moya del Barco was stationed at La Union on the Caraparana River.

| https://bibliotecadigital.bnp.gob.pe/items/6b89bc46-70db-43e8-af1f-86d4cbc4db44;origin=internal document states that Moya del Barco made a public denunciation about the Putumayo crimes in "La Acción Popular". ""It is true, certainly... that terrible acts have been committed of cruelty, debauchery and greed with the unhappy aborigines of Putumayo for part of the employees of the trading company The Peruvian Amazon Ruber co Ltd" Citation states that Moya del Barco lived in the Putumayo for seven months as the chief of the Peruvian military garrisons.

https://books.google.com/books?id=O7wLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA279&lpg=PA279&dq=%22Ar%C3%ADstides+Moya+del+Barco%22+%22putumayo%22&source=bl&ots=NQjoMWQO68&sig=ACfU3U0pbxM3x4ATdaN7SnL_clW0Bn7akQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjS9ZHN3fyFAxVB6ckDHf-OA7gQ6AF6BAgMEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Ar%C3%ADstides%20Moya%20del%20Barco%22%20%22putumayo%22&f=false page 279 that source contains part of his denouncement of Putumayo authorities.

Moya del Barco implicates Prefect Alayza Paz Soldan, the commander general Gerardo Alvarez, and Antonio Castro, chief of the region general staff. Prior to naming those political figures he states that aside from the London board of directors, the general manager in Iquitos was responsible for the attacks, the managers of La Chorrera and Encanto were the direct authors of many horrors, the employees and section heads, as we,, as all of the commissioners and justices of peace in the Putumayo had responsibility "by inertia for these crimes, as well as some authorities of Iquitos, such as the court of justices, its prosecutor and tax agents, who, having knowledge, through public voice, of the criminal actions of the aforementioned company in Putumayo, have not taken the measures of the case for its punishment, or even to prevent its repition in the future." page 280 of above referred document

x

"Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald López (6 July 1862 – 9 July 1897)[a][2] was a Peruvian rubber baron. He was born in San Luis, Ancash, in a province that was later named after him.

. In the early 1890s, Fitzcarrald discovered the Isthmus of Fitzcarrald, which was a portage route from the Ucayali River into the Madre de Dios River basin.

Fitzcarrald became known as the "King of Caucho" (natural rubber) due to his success during the rubber boom.[b]

His enterprise exploited and enslaved Asháninka, Mashco-Piro, Harákmbut, Shipibo-Conibo and other native groups, who were then dedicated to the extraction of rubber.

In 1897, Fitzcarrald, along with his Bolivian business partner Antonio Vaca Díez, drowned in an accident on the Urubamba River.

! Is David Cazès the same David Cazes mentioned in Putumayo literature, Consul for England in Iquitos?

!!!! claims that RAFAEL LARRANAGA had DISAPPEARED "among the Indians" after he was imprisoned, then forced to sell his estate.

"The company operated in the area of the Putumayo River,[5] a river that flows from the Andes to join the Amazon River deep in the tropical jungle." - PAC also operated along a portion of the Caqueta River's right bank. Including the Cahuinari River, Nocaimani River, and Apaporis River.

"Thus, the possession of the lower part of the Caqueta up to the Salto de Araracuara will go hand in hand, going up, with the control of the upper part [of the river]..." ^Lower part of the Caqueta refers to Arana's acquisition of Cecilio Plata's estate.

"The indictment of Peruvian officials in the Hardenburg narrative is extremely severe, and they are contrasted unfavourably with the Colombians.{39} In reality there is little to choose between the methods of the representatives of any of the South American republics as regards the administration of justice in remote regions. Power is always abused in such places by the Latin American people, be they Peruvians, Colombians, Bolivians, Brazilians, Argentinos, or others. Tyranny is but a question of opportunity, in the present stage of their development. Justice is bought and sold, as far as its secondary administrators are concerned... Furthermore, there are other rubber-bearing regions in the Amazon Valley where hidden abuses are committed, in the territory of other South American republics; and Peru does not stand alone, and atrocities are not confined to the Putumayo." - C. Reginald Enoch

ó

Siona, Cofán and Secoya natives also suffered during the Putumayo genocide. See Maijuna natives also. Ticuna and Yuri natives were exploited as well. Research the Miriti and Matapi peoples of the Caqueta River, victims of Colombian caucheros and later Casa Arana. Miriti language is listed as extinct. Some of those people would have been dedicated to rubber extraction at Campoamour, near the Miriti and Caqueta confluence.(?) Yukuna, Tanimuka and Matapi tribes appear to have been the natives on the Miriti River.

By December 1911, only 9 out of 240 men indicted were arrested. By the time of the Parliamentary Committee organized for the Putumayo questions in 1913, there were "only 75 of them in custody at Iquitos ; all the others have either run away or have died." - Parliamentary Papers Volume 14 P170

On expanding the date

A: The date 1912 for the end of the Putumayo genocide insinuates that the collapse of the rubber price, subsequent reforms by Arana’s administration, and liquidation of the Peruvian Amazon Company led to the end of the genocide. However, there are two major events after 1912 which constitute acts of genocide. (A1) 1916 rebellion of Atenas and (A2) the forced migration of 6,719 Putumayo natives by the Loayza brothers. Information on A1 comes from missionaries who moved to the Putumayo in 1912. They stated that abuse against the natives did not stop under Arana’s reforms. Information on A2 comes from Carlos Loayza, and the Arana enterprise was also responsible for these migrations

Michael Taussig also mentioned another revolt on the Igaraparana River in 1917 which was suppressed by Peruvian soldiers.

B: Julio César Arana did not lose his monopoly on the Putumayo estate and the Putumayo natives did not gain freedom post 1912. Arana continued to trade rubber under a different persons name until the 1930s, and the work force extracting rubber was still indigenous peoples.

C: In November of 1911, the English consul in Iquitos reported that five hundred natives were forced to migrate to the Upper Amazon. They were displaced and presumably many of them died during that journey. This information comes from Roger Casement's Heart of Darkness, the 1911 documents, page 655. The conditions they faced in the following years are not known however they are further victims of the Putumayo genocide through displacement and their further exploitation. I do not know how this factor would play into expanding the date past 1912 though.

Source for the genocide occurring at the hands of Arana, between 1900 and 1930.

One could argue that the "Putumayo genocide" ends after the relocation of more than 6,719 natives from the estates in Colombia, towards the Ampiyacu basin. Half of that group died. There may have been more than 6,719 migrants. Here is another source for the 6,719 natives, which includes a breakdown of the demographics.

While the genocide may have ended in the mid 1930s, the exploitation of these natives continued at the hands of Miguel S. Loayza, Remigio Vega, Arana, and later the oil companies.

citation for years of exploitation ranging from 1900-1930.

On the numbers and nations

"Referencing Casement, Rumrrill and Zutter wrote that “the “rubber boom” époque cost thousands of lives. In the Putumayo … in less than five years the native population went from 50,000 to just 8,000, the majority being Huitotos” (1976: 177)" - https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/journeys/20/2/jy200204.xml

"We think there are 15 groups... [and] many are the descendents of tribes contacted over 100 years ago, during the rubber boom, who fled the prospect of enslavement and decimation by new diseases."

From Victor Macedo's page, see article for reference numbers "Paredes mentioned that a population which was estimated by Carlos Rey de Castro to be at 50,000 natives had fallen down to 8,000 in the Putumayo River basin between 1906-1911.[182][ai] The Peruvian Amazon Company prospectus issued in 1907 claimed that there were 40,000 "Indian ‘labourers'" in the region at the time.[77][185][59]"

.

"The presence of a Consul set them thinking, the approach of a judge put them besides themselves with fear."

"This journal is one of the most important indictments ever made against perpetrators of atrocities and imperial system building, and exposes the genocide of which international commerce is capable." Angus Mitchell, editor of AJRC 1910

Peruvian Amazon Company

Formerly	Arana y Vega Compania Larrañaga, Arana y compañia
Company type	Firm
Industry	Exportation of natural rubber
Founded	1 October 1907 (1907-10-01)
Founder	Julio César Arana
Fate	Liquidated
Headquarters	London, England Iquitos, Peru
Key people	Pablo Zumaeta Noriega, company manager at Iquitos Lizardo Arana, company manager at Manaus Abel Alarco, company director Juan B. Vega, business partner of Julio César Arana Victor Macedo, general manager at El Encanto Miguel S. Loayza, general manager at La Chorrea
Products	Rubber and slave trade
Total equity	£1,000,000 (1907)
Divisions	El Encanto agency La Chorrera agency

Pacaya Rubber and Produce Company Ltd

Company type	Firm
Founded	March 1910 (1910-03)
Founder	Victor Israel Iller
Total equity	£155,000

Location of the Pacaya River

Orton (Bolivia) Rubber Company Ltd.

Company type	Firm
Founder	Antonio de Vaca Díez

^ Founded with English investors

Inca Mining Company

Company type	Firm

^ Founded with English investors

Suarez Hermanos & Co. Ltd

Company type	Firm
Founded	5 August 1909 (1909-08-05)
Founder	Nícolas Suárez Callaú
Total equity	£750,000

"20,758 rubber estradas were specifically listed as Suarez property in 1909, as well as widespread ranch land, real estate, and river boats on the Amazon, Madeira, Mamore and Beni. The rubber lands alone amounted to 6,466,970 hectares (approximately 25,000 square miles)."

Carlos Scharff & Compania

Company type	Firm
Founder	Carlos Scharff

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/The_distribution_of_bird_life_in_the_Urubamba_valley_of_Peru%3B_a_report_on_the_birds_collected_by_the_Yale_university_National_geographic_society%27s_expeditions_%281921%29_%2820982882211%29.jpg

https://books.google.com/books?id=c-IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=%22fiscarrald%22&source=bl&ots=0eRdF_80Hw&sig=ACfU3U2dBA9hNQj-cHfd850nhzhLmTNCdw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjcw8f-i_iCAxV8nWoFHeU9BME4KBDoAXoECA0QAg#v=onepage&q=Galdós&f=false

ANOTHER LIST OF NAMES

List relates to important figures associated with Julio Cesar Arana.

• Julio Cesar Arana

-See his page for any information.

• Lizardo Arana

-Brother in law to Julio Cesar Arana

• Pablo Zumaeta Noriega

-Mayor of Iquitos between 1912 then in 1914, and later between 1922-1923 Brother-in-law to Julio Cesar Arana.

• Bartolomé Zumaeta

-Brother of Pablo Zumaeta, and brother-in-law to Julio Cesar Arana. Involved in the 1907 excursion against the remaining Colombian properties in the Putumayo. Later murdered by the rebellious (and in Casement's words, heroic) chief Katenere. According to Casement, Bartolome's death resulted in a continuous state of punishment for the Natives up until his (Casement's) arrival in the Putumayo.

• Juan B. Vega

-Listed in Capelo's 1900 document. Check Goodman, Casement, and Barclay for information about partnership with Vega. No mention by Hardenburg. Directed a correria against Boras around the Abisinia-Morelia territory. An arrest warrant was issued against Vega in February of 1913.

• Luis F. Morey

-Senator for Loreto in 1901. Owned the Amazonas ship, that had a tonnage of 128. Luis owned a number of rubber producing estates along the Maranon and Ucayali Rivers, which he registered after the end of the rubber boom. In 1928 Luis owned a total of 167,225 hectares divided between fourteen different large estates.

• Victor Israel Iller

-Mayor of Iquitos between 1917-1918 and later in 1930. Founder of the Pacaya rubber Company, and an ally to Julio C. Arana. sfn|Casement|1997|p=Find it -Victor pointed out to Casement about Arana's financial conquest over the Putumayo. Arana's first step was to get the regional rubber exporters into debt and through that debt obtain more properties. Some of the properties in the region Arana bought out, and with other enterprises he used force to take over their assets.

• Cecilio Hernandez

-Not listed as a mayor in the almanaque, however he was a politician around 1904. Find source. Cecilio was a relatively important rubber baron.

• Abel Alarco

-Original founder of J.C. Arana y Hermanos firm in 1903. -Brother-in-law of J.C.A., through Ercilia del Carmen Zumaeta Noriega, sister of Pablo Zumaeta Noriega.

• Armando Normand accompanied Alarco to Barbados as a translator. They contracted thirty-six Barbadian men, and this group arrived in Manaus by November of 1904. According to Normand this group stayed in Manaus for a week, and Alarco hired an Argentinean named Glieman [also spelled Gleeman]. The group then travelled on the Steamship Javari to the mouth of the Putumayo, and boarded one of Arana's steamers. Juan B. Vega and Sanchez were aboard. See Normand article.

Abel was a director of PAC while his brother was a member of Arana and Abel and Company.

• German Alarco

-Brother of Abel Alarco. Mayor of Iquitos in 1909 and later between 1911-1912. Discrepancy in the year or term? Why does Lucas Rodriguez term start in 1911, and why does Emilio Strassberger's term start in 1912 if German's the mayor at the time. Did he resign??? Also, other sources say the it was the brother Abel Alarco that was the mayor, were those sources of information just confused on which brother was in office?? Abel returned to Iquitos from London around 1910-11, and appears more often in references than German.

• Amadeo Burga

-Government official who was bribed by the Aranas. Check if Burga was the commissario.

• Benito Lorres (Confirm this name)
• Miguel S. Loayza

-See his page for information. Director of El Encanto agency. The Justice of Peace in the Putumayo was a cousin of Loayza, named R. Coloma. The "Coloma Hermanos" appear in the Santos album 1912, page 200. R. Coloma was a PAC agent managing Sur Este.

• Victor Macedo

-Director of La Chorrera's agency. I have no sources regarding Macedo's fate after the Peruvian Amazon Company's liquidation.

• Senator & Lawyer Julio Ego-Aguierre [es]

-Lawyer for Arana *AFTER* the Putumayo genocide was exposed. Aguierre's campaign to become a senator was financed by Julio Arana according to the Spanish wikipedia, check Goodman to see if he says anything. Listed as a lawyer in Iquitos as early as 1900 in Capelo's 1900 document. "Dr. Egoaguierre is the Julio Arana's lawyer."

• Benjamin Duble

J.C. Duble

• Carlos Rey de Castro

-Peruvian Consul to Manaus(1907-1912). Ally of Arana. It is said (I believe by Goodman, check this) that Castro received a large loan (5,000 pound sterling comes to mind but check the source.) Carlos initiated a defensive campaign in the name of Arana. See the pamphlets he published, and the viaje de la commission album of 1912. Consul Stuart J. Mitchell and probably George Mitchell as well mention Carlos overbearing nature during the consular commission, and likely collusion with Arana. Find the words they use if you want to reference "collusion" from this instance.

• Benjamin Larrañaga

-Early Colombian settler in the Putumayo basin. Benjamin was the owner of La Chorrera, and the business partner of Julio Cesar Arana in their business firm Larrañaga, Arana y compañia.

• Referred to as one of the earliest conquistadores of the Putumayo, check Hardenburg, Casement and slavery in Peru.
• Robuchon’s book, published after his death, states Benjamin was from Pasto.
• h

• Rafael Larrañaga

-Arrested by Arana after the death of Benjamin. On what grounds?? It is said that Rafael's family was robbed "scandalously" by Arana after the death of his father. Benjamin (the father) died in 1903.

• Maybe Rafael Reyes? Theoretically no direct relationship after Rafael’s rubber firm dissolved.

-Reference to Reyes headquarters at La Sofia.

• What is Belisaro Zárate’s involvement with the rubber firm. Mayor of Iquitos 1899-1900 Mentioned in Capelo.
• ^ Same question for Enrique A. Llosa, mayor on 1901 and once an owner of the Veloz, which later became an asset of Arana. The last source claims the Veloz began operating on the Igaraparaná River after May of 1907.
• Does Genaro Herrera have any mentions or relations with JCA?? G.H. was deputy mayor of Iquitos in 1913, was Arana living in London by this point? This next bit of information comes from his spanish wikipedia article. In 1907 Herrera published "Los caucheros (apuntes sociológicos y económicos) un clima calumniado" which maybe a defense of the Peruvian Cauchero. Apparently he worked as a journalist and a publisher in Iquitos as well as Lima for a time. He founded "El Loreto Comercial" in Iquitos during the rubber boom.Genaro Herrera [es] There is a lawyer in Capelo's 1900 document under the name J.E. Herrera, and the name Genaro is sometimes spelled Jenaro.

• Who is the prefect “Zapata” ???? Mentioned in Hardenburg + AJRC, ally to JCA?
• Hardenburg referring to the complacent attitude of the "celebrated" Prefect Zapata.

David Cazes stated to R.C. that he had personal knowledge and private evidence that Zapata was bribed by Arana. Cazes is referring to the Pensamiento affair (as titled in R.C.'s journal. See P455-457 for description of affair, worth a write up later. Amadeo Burga, a commissario at the time was also involved in this incident with Zapata against Cazes.

• ¿Is Ramon Sanchez worth a mention on JCA page? Co-partner in founding Matanzas in 1904, bought out a year later after complaints. should be worth mentioning if you bring up David Cazes.
• Sanchez is mentioned twice in the AJRC, see these pages for reference.

• David Cazes

-English consul in Iquitos. How many years? | Listed as a commercial house in Capelo's 1900 document. Consul in Iquitos since 1903. "quite a conscientious consul and submitted commercial reports for Iquitos for 1903-1906, 1908 and 1910, although he clearly turned a blind eye to the rumors of atrocities.... Casement's conversations with Cazes during his two weeks stay in Iquitos are recoreed in... and show that Casement distrusted Cazes - and felt he was protecting trading rather than human interest. They maintained a long correspondence during 1911 and 1912 as Cazes supplied important local information to Casement..." "Three Barbadians had once complainted to him as Consul of the character of their employment on the Putumayo alleging they were illegally forced to hunt the Indians. Cazes seems to have taken no steps to verify or to elicit further information on this obviously important point - but he spoke to Julio C. Arana (this must have been 1908 or earlier) and said there must be no more complaints - Arana promised to do anything C[azes] wished as regards Barbadians and paid off and sent home some of them who complained. Beginning with knowing practically nothing, as the days have shown me more and more capable of eliciting the truth. Cazes had again and again admitted, incidentally, a pretty extensive knowledge of what was the state of things on the Putumayo. ... "Cazes, as a Consul, is useless. He convinces me more and more of his indifference to right. For instance he told me only today of seeing young [Amadeo] Burga brutally beating his Indian servant in Hotel Cosmopolita once. He interfered and protected the man. Burga said: "Why, it is my Indian" - and Cazes never hinted at these things to me (or to FO I fancy) when I first came. He knew a very great deal of the Putumayo and kept it quiet - like everyone else in Iquitos. The Arana influence was too strong - and he was a trader and sold to them.

• Cesar Lurquin

"César Lúrquin, the Peruvian Comisario of the Putumayo. This miserable wretch was openly taking with him to Iquitos a little Huitoto girl of some seven years, presumably to sell her as a “servant,” for it is a well-known fact that this repugnant traffic in human beings is carried on, almost openly, there. His position was a sinecure, for, instead of stopping on the Putumayo, travelling about there and really making efforts to suppress crime by punishing the criminals, he contented himself with visiting the region four or five times a year—always on the company’s launches—stopping a week or so, collecting some children to sell, and then returning and making his “report.”

• Hildebrando Fuentes

Chirif 2009 citation claims that Fuentes was the PREFECT of Loreto around 1904, and ordered the establishment of a garrison at La Chorrera. When the arrest warrant for Victor Macedo was issued in 1911, Fuentes protested against it along with several other prominent individuals.

Establish link between BOOTH and ARANA. Booth steamships transported rubber for JCA, but who was the direct relationship with.

• WHO IS PEDRO PORTILLO, SENATOR OF LORETO IN 1914, WHATS THE RELATION WITH J.C.A. According to Barclay, he was a former prefect of Loreto, then mayor in the year previously stated, as well as a minister of development.

• WHO IS ELÍAS ANDRADE, "EL REY DEL NAPO" ??? Ecuadorian, see also https://www.google.com/books/edition/Head_Hunters_of_the_Amazon/5rRIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=andrade

Caption text

Name	Nickname	Location of Operations	Area of Operations	Notes
Julio Cesar Arana	Rubber King	Between Putumayo-Tigre Rivers, property on Yavari River	7,680,000 acres	Peruvian Amazon Company. Sixth largest tax payer in Manaus by 1907.
Carlos Fitzcarrald	The King of Rubber	Example	Example	Example
Nicolas Suarez Callau	the Rockefeller of the Rubber Trade	Example	16,000,000 acres	"so wealthy he controlled 10,000 employees."
Antonio de Vaca Diez	Example	Example	Example	Example
Elias Andrade	King of the Napo	Napo River	Unknown	Find sources
Germino Garrido y Otero	King of the Içana River	Içana River	Unknown	"held sway since 1880 with a 400-strong army, many of them sired by his own loins."
Joaquin Gonçalves Araujo	"J.G."	Negro River	Controlled 1,500 miles along the Negro River	"virtually evolved the debt system that has ensnared both trail owners and tappers, coaxing local traders to accept more goods than that year's crop would warrant, keeping this debt alive and fresh in his ledgers."
Carlos Scharff		Purus River	Unknown	500 workers at one point I believe, 2,000 families? Find sources
Tomas Funes	Example	Rio Negro, Orinoco River		Venezuela rubber baron
Karl Waldemar Scholz	Example	Example	Example	Austrian Consul in Manaus. "Made tracks for the Putumayo and took his life." See Collier pages 55-56 for reference of his wealth.
Luiz da Silva Gomes		Purus River	10,000,000 acres	Purus estate said to yield five hundred tons of rubber annually.
Maximo Rodriguex +	Inambari	?
Ferdinand Kahn
Gregorio Delgado e Hijo			Founded rubber co in late 1800s, G. Delgado é Hijo. Owned the steamship Libertad in 1915.
David Cazes?

Barcia hermanos Marius Levy & Schuler Wesche y Cia Pinto Hermanos (Abraham Pinot and Moyses? Pinto) Hernandez, Magne & Cia [Yahia] Benasayag [Auday], Toledano y Cia | Benasayag died in 1939 Kahn y Polack Louis Vatin

ORDER OF OPERATION

• Benjamin Larranaga or Crisostomo Hernandez (?-1905?)
• Pablo Zumaeta
• 1903 massacre of Ocaina natives
• 1908 raids on Caraparana.
• Rafael Larranaga (?)
• Luis Felipe Morey
• Eugene Robuchon (?-1906)
• Walter Ernest Hardenburg
• Reyes Hermanos
• Urbano Gutierrez

Important investors / directors

Caption text

Name	Related Company	Role	Financial connection
Frank Newnes	Inambari Para-Rubber Estates, Limited	Example	Example
George Newnes	Inambari Para-Rubber Estates, Limited	Example	Example
Martin Conway	Inambari Para-Rubber Estates, Limited	Example	Example
Louis Bernacchi	Inambari Para-Rubber	Example	Example
Sir John Lister-Kaye, 3rd Baronet	Peruvian Amazon Company	Example	Example
Henry M. Read	Peruvian Amazon Company	Example	Example
John Russel Gubbins	Peruvian Amazon Company	Example	Example
Baron de Sousa Deiro	Peruvian Amazon Company	Example	Example
M. Henri Bonduel	Peruvian Amazon Company	Example	Example
Keith Fraser Arbuthnot	Inambari Para-Rubber	Example	Example
Thomas Barclay (economic writer)	Central Java Rubber Plantations + La Libertad Rubber & Cocoa Estate	Example	Example
Thomas Devereux Pile	Pacaya Rubber Company	Example	Example
Henry E. Dering	Pacaya Rubber Company	Example	Example
Charles E. Parker	Pacaya Rubber Company	Example	Example
"Baron Jacques de Gunzburg"	The Orton Rubber Company	Example	Example
"Alexandre Devès"	The Orton Rubber Company	Example	Example
Wallace Hardison	Inca Mining Company
Chester W. Brown	Inca Mining Company

Charles Stuart Henry Abbott, LORD TENTERDEN??? Pacaya Rubber Co. Director

Inambari Para-Rubber Company mentions in Casement 1911:

"By the way the Inambari Para Company say they are being mistaken for the Peruvian Amazon Company!"

Ships belonging to the Rubber firms

According to the Peruvian Amazon Company prospectus, drawn up by Eugene Robuchon or Carlos Rey de Castro. CONFIRM THAT LAST SENTENCE, I believe I pulled the last three names from Viaje de la Commission 1912.

‘PUTUMAYO’

‘HUITOTA’

‘LIBERAL’

‘MAIZAN’

‘CALLAO’

‘INTREPIDO’

‘VELOZ’

‘DELTA’

‘AUDAZ’

ACREANA

‘CAMPARANA’

• CARAPARANA

‘CAHUINARI’

‘MOSSAMEDES’

‘PRECIADA’

‘RIOJA’

‘AYACUCHO’

‘VENCEDORA’

‘THEA’

‘JUNIN’

‘RAPIDA’

‘NAPO’

‘PURITANO’

‘SANTOS DUMOND’

‘PERSERVANCA’

‘URIMAGUAS’

‘COSMOPOLITA’

‘LA EMILIA’ (?)

‘ANASTASIA’

BEATRIZ - Government owned, chartered by Arana.

List of ships belonging to Fitzcarrald

I believe I pulled these names from Ernesto Reyna 1942 Fitzcarrald Rey del Caucho. Confirm before posting anywhere. BOLIVAR(14T) information can be found in CAPELO I believe, or whatever source lists the Iquitos ships. There is another BOLIVAR ship listed in Capelo, which is a 615T ship belonging to the Booth Steamship Co.

‘LA ESPERANZA’

‘SHIRINGA’

‘CONTAMANA’

‘BERMUDEZ’

‘UNION’ 65T

‘LAURA’

‘DOROTEA’

‘CINTRA’

‘BOLIVAR’

‘ADOLFITO’

‘FRANCIA’

Travelers to the Putumayo and dates

These dates may be corrected as I source the information.

THIS IS A LIST OF NAMES THAT PROVIDED SOURCES FOR THE PUTUMAYO GENOCIDE AND PERUVIAN AMAZON COMPANY. SOME NAMES AND INFORMATION MAY BE MISSING.

• Henry Lister Maw : 1827 http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Maw%2C%20Henry%20Lister

-See page 269. Casement refers to Maw's report multiple times.

• Joaquin Rocha : 1903

-Collected information regarding Crisostomo Hernandez and other earlier settlers. In the Putumayo a year before Robuchon I believe.

• Eugene Robuchon : 1904-1906

-Hired by Arana to map out the extent of his property. Wrote the Peruvian Amazon Company prospectus that was released posthumously.

• Manuel Rodrígüez Lira : 1902-1906

-Photographer who established himself in Iquitos in 1899. His partner was named Victoriano Gil Ruiz.

• Thomas Whiffen : 1906 or 7? Unsure

-Searched for Robuchon, in the region for maybe a year +

• Consul Charles C. Eberhardt

-"General Conditions in the Putumayo River district of Peru" December 3, 1907

• Walter Ernest Hardenburg : 1907-1908

-Provided depositions from ex-employees. Continued Saldaña Rocca’s work against Arana. 20 or so depositions.

• Henry Gielgud : 1909

-Travelled into the region for a [commercial report]? Is that correct? Employed by the Peruvian Amazon Company for some reason. Atrocities and evidence of abuse hidden from Gielgud. [Roger Casement found out prisoners were sent away upon Henry’s arrival. AJRC]

• Roger Casement and commission : 1910

-Arrived around September 1910, left in October [?]. Travelled to La Chorrera, Ultimo Retiro, Entre Rios, Puerto Peruano, Matanzas, [maybe Atenas, need to read next pages of AJRC.] and met Carlos Miranda at some point, as well as Augusto Jimenez Seminario, Armando Normand, Andres O’Donnell, Victor Macedo, and Fidel Velarde. All of those names are implicated by Hardenburg and Saldaña with crimes against the Natives.

• Roger Casement 2nd trip : 1911

-Attempted to arrest two important [PAC] criminals near Brazilian border. Find these names in Goodman and I believe AJRC

• George Mitchell + Stuart J. Fuller : 1912 August-October

-Consular commission, provided reports to their respective governments. Limited to what Arana and the PAC allowed them to see. Carlos Rey de Castro constantly with them apparently, trying to take charge of the commission and distract attention from the Natives. CARLOS REY DE CASTRO IN DEBT 4,600 TO ARANA'S FIRM, MENTIONED IN AJRC + COLLIER 1968 P51

• Silvino Santos : 1912 + later dates

-Photographer for Arana and the 1912 commission. Later developed a film that is now on the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, sunk by a German torpedo. Goodman refers to this near end of book, 1914 or 1915 I believe. He released later films in the region via Arana’s sponsorship.

• Leo Sambrook : 1912-1916

-Priest in the Putumayo. Short lived mission since the new clergy had little effect on lessening violence against the Natives in the Putumayo. Goodman refers to this. Atenas rebellion a WEEK before Roger casement was executed. Around 900 Boras natives, whose insurrection was dealt with by a detachment of Peruvian soldiers.

• Alberto Gridilla : 1912?

Priest who gave an account on the first year of his mission https://books.google.com/books/about/Un_año_en_el_Putumayo.html?id=FZ4sAAAAMAAJ

• Carlos A. Valcarcel :

Judge

• Romulo Paredes :

Judge

7 January 1910 letter from P. Zumaeta to J.C.A

"This letter was written to contest the views of Mr. Gielgud that between 1st July, 1907, and 31st December, 1908, a large sum of money (£70,917) should be written off as lost. The general manager at Iquitos [Zumaeta] states that they i did not accept Mr. Gielgud's view when he put it before them at Iquitos 'pointing out that the said amount represented really capital spent in conquering or more properly subjecting the Indians'"... "The letter proceeds to argue that though it might be proper to write off doubtful debts, there was no need to reduce capital account:- 'As you are aware, in undertakings like ours the capital is applied to and spent in conquering or more properly attracting to work and civilisation the savage tribes, which once this attained, together with the personal contingent and labour of the inhabitants of the wild, bring to us the property of the very soil they dominated, paying afterwards with the produce they supply, the value of any such advances. In undertakings like ours any amounts so applied are considered as capital. (This application for the capital will not be continued in future unless the company should decide to develop the business some more.)" The letter further contests the view that another sum of 33,028 in connection with Mr Gielgud's La Chorrera accounts should be estimated as a loss. This sum, it is urged, 'arises from expenses made in conquering the Indian tribes Andokes and Boras." -Parliamentary Papers 1913 Volume 14

Photographers during the rubber boom

Caption text

Name	Area of activity	Years of activity
Eugene Robuchon	Putumayo-Caqueta	1903-1906
Silvino Santos	Putumayo	1911-1913
Rodriguez Lira	Loreto-Iquitos	1903-?
Charles Krohle	Rio Pichis	Example
Ermanno Stradelli	1884(?)-1926	Western Brazil(?)
Dana Merril	Madeira-Mamore Railway	?-1912
Erland Nordenskiöld	Tambopata River, Bolivia	1904-1905,1908-1909
Alberto Ballón Landa	1917	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example

Charles Krohle

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indian_rubber_gatherers_on_the_upper_Amazon,_Brazil_LCCN2001705614.jpg

https://luminous-lint.com/app/image/0695130540677503415011820243/

Charles Kroehle Indios Piras Rio Pichis Peru 1888

Not Kroehle

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_lower_Amazon;_a_narrative_of_explorations_in_the_little_known_regions_of_the_state_of_Par%C3%A1,_on_the_lower_Amazon_(1914)_(14769193271).jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Putumayo_-_the_devil%27s_paradise,_travels_in_the_Peruvian_Amazon_Region_and_an_account_of_the_atrocities_committed_upon_the_Indians_therein_(1913)_(14595575888).jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_lower_Amazon;_a_narrative_of_explorations_in_the_little_known_regions_of_the_state_of_Par%C3%A1,_on_the_lower_Amazon_(1914)_(14772367715).jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amazon_rubber_boat,_Brazil_LCCN2001705619.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_lower_Amazon;_a_narrative_of_explorations_in_the_little_known_regions_of_the_state_of_Par%C3%A1,_on_the_lower_Amazon_(1914)_(14585778708).jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_lower_Amazon;_a_narrative_of_explorations_in_the_little_known_regions_of_the_state_of_Par%C3%A1,_on_the_lower_Amazon_(1914)_(14585941627).jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_lower_Amazon;_a_narrative_of_explorations_in_the_little_known_regions_of_the_state_of_Par%C3%A1,_on_the_lower_Amazon_(1914)_(14585709838).jpg

Revelations of Casement's investigation

To be added to Normand's page

In 1910 Roger Casement was sent to the Putumayo on a consular commission to investigate the involvement of English subjects in the Putumayo atrocities, which were brought to light in 1906-1908 by the works of Hardenburg and Saldaña. These English subjects referred to the Barbadians employed by the Peruvian Amazon Company. The Barbadian workers were originally hired in 1904 on two year contracts with the Company, but quickly became indentured and in debt to the company. Armando Normand was hired around the same time as the Barbadians, and was sent with a contingent of them to found the settlement of Matanzas. Westerman Levine, Joshua Dyall, Frederick Bishop, Donal Francis, James Lane, Augustus Walcott, and Stanley Sealey were some of the Barbadians who worked at Matanzas under Armando Normand.

Before embarking on the journey from Iquitos to the Putumayo Casement was warned about the Matanzas station, which had the worst reputation out of the plantations in the Putumayo. The editor of The Amazon Journal Diary of Roger Casement, stated that "in a number of respects it might be compared to the "inner station" of (Joesph) Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" and if there is a single figure that resembles Kurtz in this journal it is Armando Normand."

It seems like in a futile attempt avoid Casement's commission, Normand was at a subordinate station of Matanzas named La China. Roger Casement called upon him for an interview.

While staying at Matanzas on October 18th, Casement was awakened by Normand's harem, that had arrived hours after Normand did.

Regarding Armando Normand, Casement stated "If any one on the Putumayo deserves punishment this man should be made an example of."

Page 255 Amazon journal diary relates to Donal Francis. Francis worked under Normand for two years and had personal knowledge about Normand's crimes beginning in 1904. However when Francis was questioned by Casement in front of Juan Tizon Donal stated he only "planted yucca and sugar cane" at Matanzas. Frederick Bishop confronted Francis over this, calling him a coward and stating that for lying to Casement for a bribe, Donal was just as bad as the company's murderers.

1911

November 1911 "Mr. Cazes who tells me that he hears that quite recently several agents who had been incriminated by Dr. Parededs but who had not been arrested, now learning of contemplated action by the authortieis had made off, presumably into Colombian or Brazilian territory taking with them "five hundred indians" ^This includes Carlos Miranda, Donald Francis, Daniel Alban, <- , Augusto Jimenez, Abelardo Aguero, and I believe Alfredo Montt among other criminals.

X

A biographical paper published in 2009 by a Colombian history professor named Carlos Guillermo Paramo Bonilla examined the character of Armando Normand. Disregarding Julio Arana, the paper was the first attempt at constructing a biographical profile for a perpetrator of the Putumayo genocide. Guillermo suggests that this may be due to an overwhelming amount of information that is repetitive and contradictory to the point that the criminals appear to meet the same character profile. That profile being the "sadistic and irrational, cynical and unscrupulous rubber tapper" described in Jose Eustasio Rivera's book, "The Vortex." Guillermo used the lens painted by the writers Eustasio, Joseph Taussing, and Joseph Conrad as references to examine Normand.

Angus Mitchell, the 1997 editor of Roger Casement's diary compared Armando Normand to Kurtz in the novel Heart of Darkness. Mitchell gives additional context, noting the relevance of Casement and Joesph Conrad living together for a short time. Casement had influenced Conrad's perception of Africa, and through the Kurtz, Roger Casement had a frame to develop the model of the Putumayo rubber agents against.

Rubber exploitation in South America

"The Caqueta, Napo, and Putumayo are the main tributaries draining to the north-west Amazon and the Andean massifs of Ecuador and southern Colombia. The Ucayali and Huallaga are the main tributaries of the Maranon draining the Peruvian Andes. All these rivers were exploited for the rubber from about 1890 onwards." - Angus Mitchell

"Natives were indebted to the rubber gatherers for killing Whites, a debt that gatherers considered to be for life. Thus, Cabrera built Campoamor with forced labor as a punishment for the indigenous uprising. Up to a thousand individuals, coming from many different ethnic groups came to the area, fleeing from Casa Arana to work with Cabrera (Van der Hammen 1992: 34)."

"Rubber had existed as a product for decades but did not reach its industrial potential until the American Chemist Charles Goodyear (1800-1860) discovered the vulcanization process, which he patented in 1844.1 Vulcanization allowed for a brittle material to become elastic and resistant to weather changes. In 1888, the Scottish inventor John Dunlop patented a design for a pneumatic rubber tire for the bicycle that enabled that new machine to revolutionize personal transportation. Dunlop’s company, along with a host of others like Goodyear (1898) were part of a larger industrial revolution for which rubber became a fully-integrated and essential component of tire manufacturing that consumed between 60-75% of all rubber produced globally. By 1908 when the mass-produced Model T car was designed by Henry Ford (1903) rubber was already being imported to the United States, and rivaled only by the British rubber consumption. By 1910, over 90% of the world’s rubber supply was coming from the Congo and the Amazon Vulcanization modifies the molecular structure of rubber with high heat and the application of sulfur. through primitive extraction methods that, as will be developed below involved debt-peonage and elements of slavery"

"The dates of the Amazon Rubber Boom have been defined by Barbara Weinstein in The Amazon Rubber Boom (1850-1920) (Stanford 1983). Rubber prices begann to soar following the production of the bicycle in the 1890s and most steeply with the setting up of the motor-car industry at the dawn of the twentieth century. The mass production of the Model T Ford in 1906 turned rubber into a raw material more valuable than gold and the Putumayo atrocities were a direct consequence of the spiralling market demand. Plantation rubber began to make a signifncant influence on the international rubber market from about 1907 and by 1912 had captured about 18.51 per cent of the market and almost 40% by 1914 when it had surpassed Brazilian production levels." - The words of Angus Mitchell

"The taking of the caucho is sure death to the tree as it is cut down. The gatherer bleeds the roots and girdles the fallen trunk, cutting through the thick bark every two feet. One tree will often yield seventy-five pounds of caucho, and one man will harvest one hundred trees in a season from May to November, the Winter or dry time, during which he will gather on average twenty-five hundred pounds. The true rubber tree on the Amazon yields about six pounds a year and has an indefinite life if tapped carefully. The caucho man or cauchero fells the tree with a light, long, and narrow bladed axe known as a Brazil axe... Caucho trees grow well at an elevation of one thousand feet and rubber trees at three thousand feet. Maldonada is thirteen hundred feet. Rubber is gathered in tin cups and is smoked with pono nut to keep it from evaporating. The caucho falls on the ground on leaves placed to catch it as it exudes. It loses much by evaporation and other waste and is not clean.

Indigenous peoples exploited during the Amazon Rubber Boom

Exploited indigenous populations	River Basin	Exploited by	Header text	Header text
Huitoto	Putumayo River basin	*Casa Arana and the Peruvian Amazon Company *Colombian rubber firms.	Example	Example
Ocaina	Putumayo River basin	*Casa Arana and the Peruvian Amazon Company *Colombian rubber firms.	Example
Andoque	Putumayo River basin	*Casa Arana and the Peruvian Amazon Company *Colombian rubber firms.	Example	Example
Bora	Putumayo River basin	*Casa Arana and the Peruvian Amazon Company *Colombian rubber firms.	Example	Example
Yaguas	Pebas, Yaguas River	Example	Example	Example
Macaguaje		*Colombian caucheros		Extinct. Referred to in
Secoya	Aguarico , Cuyabeno, Ecuadorian Napo	*Ecuadorian and Colombian caucheros
Siona	Aguarico , Cuyabeno, Putumayo River basin in Colombia and Ecuador	*Ecuadorian and Colombian caucheros *Elías Andrade000		*An unknown number of Siona natives were taken down river and never heard from again by their relatives.
Cofán	Between Guamués River (tributary of Putumayo) and Aguarico River (tributary of Napo)	*Ecuadorian and Colombian caucheros	*Pedro Palomares *Ecuadorian raiders	*Randall B. Borman claims prior to contact with foreigners, the Cofan demographic consisted of between 15,000-20,000 people, and this population dropped down to 350 after the rubber boom. *An unknown number of Cofan natives were taken down river and never heard from again by their relatives.
Tetete		See Wasserstorm page 537
Oyo		*Colombian Caucheros		"Jean Langdon (1974: 37–40) cites the example of one cauchero “who took some sixty adults of the Oyo tribe [close relatives of Siona] to Peru because of the debts they owed them . . . and with their forced departure, the Oyo tribe became nearly extinct."
Coreguaje		*Colombian caucheros
Kichwa		*Colombian caucheros
Ticuna		*Peruvian, Brazilian, and Colombian caucheros
Yuri	Near the Caqueta River		*Peruvian Amazon Company *Independent caucheros
Sápara	Between the Napo and Pastaza Rivers	*Ecuadorian caucheros		Wasserstorm mentions that the region inhabited by the Sapara's was depopulated by Ecuadorian caucheros.
Urarina	Chambira River	*Peruvian caucheros
Mashco + Piro		*Carlos Fitzcarrald *Casa Rodriguez *Casa Scharff	Example	Example
Harakmbut	Manú -Madre de Dios	Casa Fitzcarrald		Example
Asháninka	Ucayali, Gran Pajonal, Unini River	*Carlos Fitzcarrald *Casa Rodriguez *Casa Scharff	Example	Example
Shipibo	Ucayali River	*Carlos Fitzcarrald	Example	Example
Conibo	Ucayali River	*Carlos Fitzcarrald, Baldimero Rodriguez	Example	Example
Huambisa	Marañón-Santiago River	*Casa Arana - 1910
Moxos		Nicolas Suarez Callau
Araona		Nicolas Suarez Callau
Toromona		Nicolas Suarez Callau
Ese Ejja	Tambopata River	*Inca Rubber Company, *Nicolás Suárez Callaú, possibly Carabaya Rubber Trading Co. and the company that bought it, Inambari Para-Rubber Estates, Limited
Tacana		Nicolás Suárez Callaú
Cashinahua	Acre River basin	Felizardo Avelino de Cerqueira
Yine		Carlos Fitzcarrald, Carlos Scharff, Venancio Amaringo Campa
Machiguenga		Carlos Scharff
Amahuaca	Purus River basin	Delfín Fitzcarrald, Casa Scharff
Yaminahua	Mishagua River, Purus River basin | |Delfín Fitzcarrald, Casa Scharff
Kokama / Cocama	Pacaya-Samiria River basin	Pacaya Rubber and Produce Company / Victor Israel ?
Yanomami
Rikbaktsa	Mato Grosso

"For the previous seventy-five years, however, Cofán and Siona history comes more sharply into focus. Both groups survived a half-century of semivoluntary or forced labor because they lived in caucho forests, where mobile labor gangs were needed.29 Competition between caucheros and missionaries also may have kept them alive: from 1896 onward, missionaries intervened to limit, if not completely prevent, rubber tappers from removing native people to Peru. Indigenous groups often shifted from missions to rubber camps and back again, depending on the relative harshness of conditions in the missions and the trade goods available to them."

"At the same time, native people experienced a constant redefinition of social, cultural, and linguistic space, as Cofán, Siona, Ingano, Macaguaje, and Huitoto households were absorbed into each other’s families. When Oyo and other Western Tucanoan lineages disappeared, for example, the survivors often became Siona or even Cofán. By contrast, along the Napo River and its tributaries, where missionary influence was limited, señores ribereños depopulated entire Quichua, Záparo, and other regions (Hudelson 1981; Muratorio 1991; Cabodevilla 1996; Barclay 1998; Trujillo 2001)"

"If the Great Depression had not intervened, it is likely that Cofán and Siona groups would have followed their Tetete, Ono, Correguaje, and Macaguaje neighbors into historical memory"

Check for sources on the Macaguaje nation and Coreguaje nation during the rubber boom. They inhabited the San Miguel and Guepi tributaries of the Putumayo.

Venezuela

Tomas Funes, earlier exploiters. Rio Negro.

Colombia

Refer to Crisostomo Hernandez, Larranaga's, Calderons, David Serrano, Ordonez, Presidente Reyes, etc.

Calderon's originally managed Atenas before J.C.A's acquisition of the estate ??? find source

"When a tribe of savages is encountered which nobody knew about or which has never had contact with whites. then it is said that they have been conquered by the person who manages to trade with them so that they will work rubber, will plant food, and will build a house for him to live in their midst Thus entering into the great and common labor of the whites, these Indians are brought into civilization. - Joaquin Rocha

See Taussig page 26, it is a story detailing one method the white caucheros used to get natives to extract rubber for them "It was in this way that in 1 896 the Colombian Crisostomo Hernandez conquered the Huitotos of the Igaraparana and Caraparana rivers, affluents of the Putumayo forcibly appropriated by Arana a few years later. A mulatto from the remote mountain town of Descanse in the Andes, Don Crisostomo was said to have been a runaway, fleeing from Colombian trading posts in the Caqueta on account of his crimes there . He had sought refuge in the deep woods of the Putumayo where he reigned over whites and Indians with great cruelty. Rebellion and cannibalism, so Rocha was told , he countered with death. The crime of one was paid for by all . On hearing of a group of Huitotos whose women and children as well as the men were said to be practicing cannibalism, Don Crisostomo decided to kill them for this crime , decapitating them all, i ncluding babies sucking at the breast. The white man who told Rocha this baulked at killing little children but had to because Don Crisostomo stood behind him with a machete.36 It is a strange story, given how much stress is elsewhere put on the desperate need for Indian labor. Here we have the tale of a man killing off that labor down to c hildren at the breast because of their alleged cannibali sm-mirroring, at least in fiction, the spectacular show of carving up human bodies that, again through fiction, occasioned the white man's furious "reprisal." A short time later Don Crisostomo was himself killed, "accidentally" shot by one of his companions of conquest. Crawling along the floor in his own blood, Don Crisostomo beckoned for his gun in the corner. But nobody would accede to his last request, for they well knew, says Rocha, that he would die killing, taking as many of his companions with him as he could."

"The Indians were constantly conspiring against their white masters , he says, until the tyrannical Crisostomo Hernandez, with savagery even greater than theirs, taught them the futility of revolt. Still, the jungle was awfully big. Don Crisostomo's power must have been really something if it could not only force the Indians to gather rubber but could also prevent them from running away. Perhaps the stories about his oratory need consideration too."

Rocha does not provide a date for the killing of Crisostomo H. however one can assume it was prior to 1903.

"The foundations thus laid by Crisostomo Hernandez and Larrañaga in 1886 grew, not without bloodshed and many killings of the Indians, into a widespread series of Colombian settlements along the banks of the Caraparana and Igaraparana, and even in the country stretching between the latter river and the Japura and on the upper waters of the Cahuinari."

"" Not so long ago" Emilio Gutierrez navigated up the Caqueta from Brazil searching for Indians to establish a rubber station. Reaching the area he wished to conquer, he sent the greater part of his me n back to carry merchandise , and while asleep he and his three companions were killed by wild Indians. Upon hearing this , other whites prepared to retaliate when news reached them that thirty of Gutierrez's Indian workforce had also been killed, all at the same time yet in different parts of the jungle. Indians working for whites were sent in pursuit of the rebels, some of whom were killed outright, some taken as prisoners for the whites, while the majority escaped. Some were captured and eaten by these Indian mercenaries. I'} Seven years later, in 1910, Casement heard of the same episode from a Peruvian , who introduced his tale by saying that the methods used by the Colombian conquerors "were very bad." He told Casement that the rebel Indians decapitated Gutierrez together with an unstated number of other whites and exposed their skulls on the walls of their drum sheds, cutting off their arms and legs and keeping the limbless bodies in water for as long as possible so as to show them off to other Indians. Casement's informant said he had found the bodies of twelve others tied to stake s, assuring Casement that (in contrast to Rocha' s account) the Indians had not eaten them because they "had a repugnance to eating white men, whom they hated too much." Terrible reprisals subsequently fell upon the Indians, noted Casement"

Armando Normand "a criminals life story" also claims that several attacks were carried out against the Matanzas station by natives that had secured weapons from previously attacked expeditions. Normand claimed that Sanchez had previously been attacked with a group of 28 men, 20 died, 8 fled with him to Iquitos. Page 943 of Criminals life story citation.

Page 230 of Slavery in Peru states that Normand's group was sent on punitive expeditions to recover weapons that natives had taken from Colombians whom they had killed. These Colombians wanted to enslave the natives in order to dedicate them to extracting rubber. Killed by Andoque natives, and first raids led by Sanchez + Normand are accredited to (by Casement's information) retaliation against killing of Colombians prior to establishment of Matanzas at the end of 1904.

Peru

Varese 2002 divides the labor systems of the rubber boom into two distinct categories. One, is that of "Enganche", never ending debt which forces subordination. See for important quote on Enganche. The second system of labor noted by Varese was simple slavery followed by the relocation of indigenous people. Varese emphasized that removing indigenous people from their homeland was a method employed by caucheros in order to cultivate submissiveness. See for specifics on Vareses's information. Varese cites Gabriel Sala, and refers to settlers "raffling an [indian] girl or paying their debts with 'a shapely girl'". That quote is not correct verbatim, see to correct it.

SEE CASEMENT 123-124 FOR PROMINENT RUBBER BARONS OF IQUITOS. Document refers to an issue of The Inca Chronicle, Volume 3, issue 2, citation reads "See PRO FO 177/358 for an original copy of The Inca Chronicle." Includes the Moreys, Atonel Vellez and the Rodrigo brothers of the Madre de dios. -Luis Morey controls the Javari, Adolfo Morey operated on the Maranon. -Rodrigo brothers were the biggest firm of caucheros on the madre de dios according to this info. Probably biggest Peruvian firm.

• Kahn Polack Company, Welsch & Company and other foreign corporations mentioned. "Although they do not to all appearences use slaves in their businesses, yet they are in a sense accomplices in the trade, for their launches are employed in carrying slaves, often in chains, either bringing their living cargoes to the dealers in Iquitos or else delivering them to some camp in the rubber districts.
• See on Atonel Vellez, important paragraph. He operated a "the big saw mill of the Upper Amazon, Puritania, and runs it with slave labour." He had indigenous blood. Puritania is south of Iquitos. No wiki page but it has a google maps location.

• I CAN NOT FIND ANY CORROBRATING INFORMATION ON ATONEL VELLEZ OR THE SO CALLED RODRIGO BROTHERS, SUPPOSEDLY THE LARGEST FIRM ON THE MADRE DE DIOS... - Otoniel Vela

"Invited Brown to dinner at Bella Vista, and afterwards we went to Alhambra to the Cinematograph, where were lots of Indians - all Indians and a few soldiers. Brown told me two interesting things. First, that he believed, too, the Indians were slaves, and in the rivers even close to Iquitos. He said he was sure of it, and that, when a whiteman was killed or 'murdered' by Indians, it was due to his atrocious treatment of them. Within a month, he said, the biggest cauchero in Iquitos, Valdimiro Rodriguez had been killed on the Madre de Dios by 8 Indians. The Indians here knew of it before the papers published it, and he heard them, talking of it among themselves on the Plaza before it became general news. This Valdimiro was one of two brothers, Rodriguez, who 'treated' on a big scale in the Ucayali and Maranon and other rivers..."

• "At Port Maldonado is the confluence of the Tambopata River with the Madre de Dios, and farther upstream is the Inambari River. The whole of this region is rich in rubber forests, and several companies are engaged in rubber-gathering, including British, American, Bolivian, and Peruvian."

• ^"The Tambopata Rubber Syndicate, The Inca Mining Company and the Inca Rubber Company controlled %74 of the land ceded out by the Peruvian government around the Inambari and Tambopata Rivers during the rubber boom" <- My summarization, Gray's information.

"[Hildebrando] Fuentes (1908:27) divides rubber-collectors into three inter-related categories: Caucheros; aviados and regatones. The aviados were responsible for traveling to remote forest encampments in order to obtain the rubber in exchange for industrial goods. The local labor boss or 'patron* (also called cauchero) was directly in charge of controlling the labor-power of indebted peons."

"The surfacing in 1904 of wild allegations of brutality, slaving and genocidal murder of Boora [Bora] and Uitoto peoples by the rubber baron's henchmen set into motion an international scandal that focused world attention on Amazonia. Nearly a century later, large-scale exploitation of natural resources and raw materials in indigenous territories remains commonplace..." State Power and Indigenous Peoples in Peruvian Amazonia

-To Kill a People: Genocide in the Twentieth Century, 2013, John M. Cox "These tragedies highlight the connection between genocidal conditions and one of the iconic developments of the modern era: the invention of the automobile and the demand for rubber that it generated. Slavery, starvation, and murder in the Congo and Amazonia also suggest that modern Western labor systems created and profited from genocidal conditions, which were not incidental to the expansion of capitalism into colonial or post-colonial lands. Further, the exclusion or marginalization from Western scholarship and knowledge of the Putumayo disaster—which involved the decimation of several indigenous groups—as well as the Congo exemplifies the way that such brutalities, when far from the heartland of Europe, can be easily overlooked, thereby inadvertently perpetuating the hierarchies that produced such catastrophes in the first place."

These subduers formed themselves into bands and parties, dubbed commercial associations, and having overcome the resistance of the Indians, they have appropiated them to their own exclusive use along with the rubber trees that might be in the region they inhabited. Henceforth to the chief of the band they became 'my Indians,' and any attempt by one of his civilized neighbors to steal, wheedle, or entice away his Indians became a capital offense. Thus where the primitive savage raided his savage neighbor for reasons that seemed good to him, the white man who came on an alleged mission of civilization to end this primal savagery himself raided his fellow white man for reasons that seemed to the Indian altogether wrong, viz, his surer enslavement. Constant thefts of Indians by one 'cauchero' from anothe rled to reprisals more bloody and murderous than anything the Indians had ever wrought upon his fellow Indian. The primary aim of rubber getting, which could only be obtained from the labor of the Indian, was often lost sight of in these desperate conflicts.

— Roger Casement

Under the Peruvian republic and the regimen of absentee capitalism to-day, tribes of useful people of this same land have been defrauded, driven into slavery, ravished, tortured, and destroyed. This has been done, not in single instances at the command of some savage potentate, but in tens of thousands under a republican Government, in a Christianised country, at the behest of the agents of a great joint-stock company with headquarters in London: the “crime” of these unfortunates being that they did not always bring in rubber sufficiently fast—work for which they practically received no payment—to satisfy their taskmasters.

— C. Reginald Enock

Refer to Carlos Fermin Fitzcarrald, J.C.A, C. Hernandez, the Moreys and rubber exploitation along Maranon, Ucayali, and Tigre. Maybe mention Pacaya rubber, probably mention Inca Rubber Co.

https://archive.org/details/oldnewperustoryo00wriguoft/page/408/mode/2up?q=rubber+company&view=theater

COMPANIA GOMERA ALTO MARANON MENTIONED P412 + PAUCARTAMBO RUBBER COMPANY

https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00X2CB.pdf Forga, Rey de Castro y Rodríguez (española) 75,287

• Exploited populations between the Napo and Caqueta Rivers: Huitoto, Boras, Andoque, Ocaina, Yagua , Amazonian Kichwas, Huambisa
• Exploited populations along the Ucayali River: Campas, Piro aka Yine, and Amahuaca , Mashco-Piro

• "The caucheiros, in turn, are portrayed by the Brazilian commissioner as 'eternal hunters of territories', with 'no land grab', a 'devastating wave', living under the 'penal regime of the rifle', in constant battles for 'conquest', to exterminate or enslave indigenous people, actions in which they ended up 'making savagery itself more savage'" (Cunha, 1976: 136-146).

“In the basin of the Madre de Dios and its affluents, where it is easy to navigate with the help of the ‘terrible’ Chunchos,[9] who in reality are good and hospitable, exist immense quantities of rubber, rich and abundant rubber forests of easy exploitation. It would appear that the new Commissioner is resolved to put a stop to the barbarous custom of the correrrias[10] organised by the authorities themselves or by the rubber-merchants, who carry on the repugnant business of selling the poor Chunchos. As labour and women are both scarce, and as there is a strong demand for the one and the other, bands of armed men are constantly organised for sudden descents upon groups or communities of the savages, no matter whether they are friendly or hostile, making them prisoners in the midst of extermination and blood. Urged on by the profit resulting from the sale of boys, robust youths, and young women (frescas mujeres), they tear children from mothers and wives from husbands without pity, and pass them from hand to hand as slaves. It were well to take the savages from their forests to use their labour and to cultivate their intelligence, but not for business purposes to make them victims of the knife and the lash.”

The side effects of the rubber network’s predation

patterns and systems on the local people’s social psyche are even more difficult to evaluate because they relate to less tangible aspects. These changes include the previously noted loss of relationship with the environment, the change from self-subsistence in a food-abundant environment to total dependence on imports, loss of indigenous skills for generations through spatial habitation patterns around a debt-peonage (slavery) means of survival, the constant breaking of connections to a physical place and origin stories through displacement and mass migration, a heightened extractive valuing of the environment, the systemic racism enforced by a powerful caste-based society, and of course the traumatic social effect of the genocide of whole

villages and ethnic groups.

https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/37367870/Thesis_IsabelOyuela-Bonzani_Final.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y PAGE 74^

Shortly after their arrival, the rubber barons began their incursions, a bloody method of obtaining indigenous labour by which,

with the support of already-conquered indigenous groups, they would make armed forays into nearby hamlets. They would capture women and youths in particular, who formed precious trading objects, whilst adult men were eliminated as they would never form as malleable a workforce as the children, who were more easily and fully assimilated (Hassel, 1907). In these circumstances, the high death rate and family disintegration caused panic among

the mainly native populations, some of whom chose to flee.

^ HUERTAS CASTILLO P 52

To shorten the distances, the

rubber companies opened paths or tracks through the forest from one river to another, intensifying the invasion of indigenous territories between the Mishagua and Manu rivers, the Manu and Los Amigos rivers, from the Manuripe River to what was then the Puerto Rimac rubber outpost on the Madre de Dios River, the Tahuamanu and Acre rivers, the Las Piedras and Manuripe rivers, the Purús and Las Piedras rivers, etc. These paths were used primarily for the movement of balls of rubber and goods towards navigable points

along the rivers.

^ HUERTAS CASTILLO P52

“Correrías” are rapid slave

raids which became institutionalised during the rubber boom around the turn of the century, to obtain labourers for the rubber extraction. A patron would give a small group of slave hunters Winchester rifles, which were in great demand, in return for which Ashéninka settlements were attacked and all individuals potentially capable of working taken captive, that is, preferably children and young women, who were taken to the patron as his personal property. Adult men were more difficult to control and thus they were preferably killed, to avoid witnesses and possible reprisals. These parties frequently consisted of Indians, who had long been subjugated by the patron through debt bondage. The Ashéninka, Yíne and Conibo were all active in these correrías. But colonists also participated as leaders of raiding parties. Although everyone assured us that these occurrences were fortunately a thing of the past, the correrías had apparently been taking place up to the 1960s. The favourite focus of the Atalaya patrons’ correrías had been the isolated Ashéninka settlements in the relatively inaccessible transitional zone

between Gran Pajonal and Ucayali

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND RIGHTS P86

Meanwhile, a new

extractivist economy had been developed in the forest region: rubber extraction and slave trade by the Ucayali patrons. In Gran Pajonal, slave raids and the transportation of slaves between the great river systems to the east and through the Andean forest regions heralded a period of particularly great disintegration which separated families, forced people from their homes, destroyed the social organisation and traditional system of alliances. At the same time violent measles epidemics

haunted, which aggravated the situation

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND P95-96

This commodification of the indigenous population rapidly evolved

into a real slave trade run by the contractors involved in extractive enterprises. With further colonisation and with changes in production and labour requirements, the traffic in slaves became rampant in the Upper Amazon and developed into an independent economic activity, an ‘extractive’ industry in its own right. Armed slave raiding, so called ‘correrías’, became widespread and markets for Indian Slaves developed in the few commercial centres of the Upper Amazon. During the short peak period of the rubber bonanza, 1890-1915, hundreds of thousands of Indians were enslaved as rubber tappers in rubber extraction. The atrocities committed by the rubber barons were numerous. Some cases are well documented, such as the notorious Putumayo scandal, where the London-based Peruvian Amazon Company Inc. was responsible for the cruel deaths of some 30,000 Indians in the extraction of 4,000 tonnes of raw rubber. And the Putumayo was just one rubber

concession in one river area

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND P132

Historical literature is full of descriptions of Slave

raids, the traffic in Slaves and exceptionally tragic tales of the inhumane suffering which was inflicted upon the indigenous population.In this growing economy, particularly charismatic patrons also stand out, for example, the very famous “King of Rubber” (Reyna 1942), Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald. An extremely ruthless patron who ran his rubber regime throughout the entire region of Atalaya where he also controlled all trade. He massacred many hundreds of Toyeri and Araseri in Madre de Dios because they did not want to work for him or 138 permit his rubber tappers to gain access to their territories. Amongst other things, several hamlets were destroyed with machine guns (Gray

1996:225).

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND p=137-138

"Crippen is caught too! but what a farce it seems - a whole world shaken by the pursuit of a man who killed his wife - and here are lots and lots of gentlemen I meet daily at dinner who not only kill their wives, but burn other people's wives alive - or cut their arms and legs off and pull the babies from their breasts to throw in the river or leave to starve in the forest - or dash their brains out against trees. Why should civilisation stand aghast at the crime of a Crippen and turn wearily away when the poor Indians of the Putumayo, or the Bantu of the Congo, turn bloodstained, appalling hands and terrified eyes to those who alone can aid?"

Note that this was written in 1874 before the rubber boom. The French

explorer, Olivier Ordinaire, wrote of his journey in the area: 137 At the time of my journey, a “lorenzo” (a specific indigenous group) between eight and ten years of age was worth between 280 and 350 francs; a well formed girl between 300 and 400 francs. Nobody tried to capture the adult men alive as they knew they would escape however far away they were taken, or they would leave themselves to die. The industrialists who organise the correrías and take part in them cannot do without the help of trained Indians for this type of hunting, because alone they would never manage to surprise the savages. When they take possession of the women and children from a dwelling, as a rule they have to kill the father, brothers and husband, in order to avoid any future dispute over the ownership of them, and then set fire to the empty hut...so that they have less

sorrow leaving it (1988:98).

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND P136-137

i. Peru thus expressed its

new national presence through the first State massacre on Indians in Ucayali. On 10th December 1866, the Peruvian navy, with gunboats El Morona, El Napo and El Putumayo, carried out a decisive punitive expedition against the Cashibo indigenous at Chonta Isla, at the mouth of the river Pachitea, in the Ucayali. The cause was an armed clash at the beginning of the year when El Putumayo had to seek refuge in the place due to running aground. According to historical sources, the officers Sr. Tavara and Sr. West disembarked and took a few bananas from an Indian field without asking. They were attacked on the return and killed by the owners of the field, local Cashibo (Uni). During the punitive expedition, the navy attacked the Cashibo hamlet and took the women and children prisoner, to later be sold as slaves in Iquitos. This was a consciously chosen form of revenge. In a desperate attempt to free the women and children, some 500 Cashibo men attacked the commando group on its return to the gunboats from the beach, where hundreds of Cashibo men were mercilessly massacred by the artillery of the war ships (for a detailed description see d’Ans

1982:161-162).

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND P136

The work force in the form of slaves had at this time been converted

into a commodity as part of the economy of the region. The correrías after indigenous slaves were common in all parts and involved all of the indigenous groups of the Ucayali. With the booming economy of rubber extraction, in 1880 human exploitation and perversion reached

new heights

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND P136

Moreover, hundreds of crimes not recorded there have taken place. Normand, Aguero, Fonseca, Montt, Jimenez, the two Rodriguez brothers and Martinengui, have between them, murdered several thousand of these unhappy beings. There is no doubt of it. Tizon admitted to me in Chorrera last week that the two Rodriguez 'had killed hundreds of natives', and that Arana gave them 50% of the produce of these two sections, S. Catalina and Sabana. Normand is again and again charged by the Barbados men with killing many hundreds. Leavine today said 'over 500', that he had seen 20 Indians killed in five days in Matanzas alone, and the dead bodies eaten by the dogs and stinking round the house, so that he could not eat his food. These seven monsters have probably killed by shooting, flogging, beheading, burning, and got rid of by starvation some 5,000 Indians in the last seven years... Fonseca had killed hundreds, too, - and Martinengui. The least criminal are probably O'Donnell, Miranda and Alcosta - of the rest it were hard to choose, save that Montt lacked probably the courage of the other monsters. And this is done in the name of civilization and industrial development!"

— Roger Casement

After concluding our work in Gran Pajonal in the spring of

1987, we moved on to the native community of Unini and the native community of Chicosa respectively, to continue the work in Ucayali. During this work we became well and truly aware of how dreadful the situation was. In the area of Unini, practically all the families had experienced abuse at the hands of the patrons. On the one hand the Unini area, as already mentioned, had been one of the preferred zones for correrías by the patrons and recruitment of cheap labour through debt bondage, and on the other hand there were still valuable lumber resources in the area which the patrons were illegally extracting. Naturally, this

was also being done with indigenous labour gained through confidence tricks and debts.

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND P=122

There were three

main trails used by the Indians which connected Gran Pajonal with the Upper Ucayali. One route went over the mountains from Oventeni and down to the mouth of the Unini river in the Ucayali. From there it was easy to obtain river transport upstream to Atalaya, but it was also possible to walk. The other trails went north of Gran Pajonal to the south of the Sira mountain and ended in Cocani and Chicosa (Catsingari) respectively, which are both minor secondary rivers flowing down into the Ucayali from the almost vertical mountainous wall which marks the border between Gran Pajonal and the Ucayali valley. These are old trading routes for the exchange of salt and metal tools between Ucayali and the Andes. To the extent that the slave trade partly emerged from these exchange systems, these routes were used in part by slave hunters on their correrías and in part for the transport of slaves on foot (see the next section on the history of Atalaya). Many of the largest farms were situated precisely at the mouths of the rivers where these trails finished, a conscious location which granted these patrons a certain control of

the traffic and guaranteed them a stable supply of indigenous labour.

LIBERATION THROUGH LAND P112

This systematic killing decimated entire “encampments“ of indigenous along many rivers and tributaries of the Alto Yurúa valley,

and many deaths were caused by armed massacres due to increasing inter-ethnic conflicts and by the introduction of hitherto unknown illnesses. One of the main consequences of the “raids” was to disperse the indigenous peoples around the headwaters of the most remote tributaries of the Yurúa and Purús valleys, on both sides of the Peru/Brazil border. Many of the survivors, such as the Cashinahua, Culina, Manchineri and Asháninka, to name but a few, were incorporated into

the shiringa system, where they remained until the end of the 1970s

HUERTAS CASTILLO P=143

The search was never for rubber, or trees, or commodities, but for men - men and women, boys and girls. They [caucheros] surrounded a house, set fire to it, shot down the old, and captured the young. When not strong enough to do this, they might 'trade' in people... The Indian, who is stout enough to resist enslavement, is always in the wrong, and therefore a 'cannibal."

AJRC R.C. P243

"In addition to the deaths from the many tribal wars and attacks of the whites, certain diseases are proving an alarmingly great factor in decimating the ranks of the Indians of Peru. Probably chief among these is the viruela, or smallpox, unknown among them till after the coming of the white man, and whole tribes have been known to perish from epidemics of this dease, to which they seem peculiarly susceptive. In the mountainous parts of the country some die of pneumonia, and of course there are always a good number of deaths from malaria and other tropical fevers. Beri-beri or elephantiasis, a swelling of the legs, is also quite common in certain districts and among the Aguarunas epilepsy has been known to exist at times."

— Charles C. Eberhardt, Diseases common, Slavery in Peru

"Through [often forced] intermarriage with the whites, disease, and battle, the Indians of Peru are rapidly disappearing, and I am told that statistics compiled for a given period during recent years show that their numbers are diminishing at the rate of 5 per cent per year : that in 20 years the wild Indian of the Upper Amazon will have disappeared almost entirely, and it seems only a question of time when the dying races of South American Indians must meet the fate of their brothers of North America, and the two in common, once the rulers of two continents, become only scattered remnants of their former greatness, if not entirely engulfed by the wave which seems sweeping over them."

— Charles C. Eberhardt, Slavery, Slavery in Peru

• See Collier 1968 page 256 for reference of a £9,000,000 cash loss for the 1912 crop, which was a larger yield than that of 1910's crop.
• The 1913 crop was estimated at more than 10,000 tons and valued to be less than £1,700,000.

• See Collier page 219, "meanwhile word came from Iquitos that in April alone over 75 tons of rubber had been shipped downriver. 'one of the largest single consignments derived from the Putumayo.' From January through April, rubber leaving that port had totaled three-quarters of its shipments for 1911."

• "To Walt Hardenburg's graphic depositions, the Consul had added telling statistics: every ton of Putumayo latex had cost seven human lives, in an era when top-grade rubber had passed 700 a ton. In twelve years, 4,000 tons of Arana's shipments had fetched almost 1,500,000 on the London Market - but 30,000 forest Indians had died to make that possible."

The Putumayo River, tributaries, and nations exploited during the Putumayo genocide:

Left tributary	Right tributary	Length (km)	Basin size (km2)	Average discharge (m3/s)
Lower Putumayo
Içá (Putumayo)		2,004.6	120,545	8,519.9
Igarapé União			634.2	35.8
	Quebrara Federico		529.5	35.1
	Parana de Jacurapa	352	1,714.6	105.3
	Puretê	322	4,246.7	249.9
Igarapé Cauíra			1,459.7	94.3
	Igarapé São Cristovão		406.4	22.1
	Cotuhé	335	6,508.8	391.4
	Yaguas}}	474.9	10,863	683.2
Alegría			731.5	49.4
Rio del Porveir			291.5	19.7
Pupuña			2,402.1	168.1
Quebrada Mutún		100	1,046.5	58.7
Igara Paraná		440	12,945	810
	Algodón	749.8	8,268	454
Buri Buri			983.4	46.3
Esperanza			557	24.6
Sabaloyaco			1,324	54.9
	Ere	167	1,623.4	77
Middle Putumayo
Cara-Paraná		260	7,265.9	486.6
	Campuya	370	4,422.2	292.2
Curilla			496.3	38.8
Penella (Peneya)			894.3	51.1
Chicorero (Caucayá)			1,720.9	97.5
Quebrada La Paya			572.3	33.2
	Güeppi	145	1,325.5	91.4
	San Miguel	295	5,628.5	488.8
Juanambu			811.1	71.3
	Cohembi		543.7	45.1
Upper Putumayo
	Guamués	140	2,164.6	254.8
	Acae (Cocaya)		283.5	21.8
	Orito		980.7	64.4
	San Juan		918.6	62.6
Guineo			312.5	24.6

Awajun Natives

"The encounters between the Awajun and the state have been marked by a profound legal and ontological violence. During the first years of the Republic, the Peruvian state fostered the colonisation of the Amazon in order to ‘civilise’ primitive indigenous peoples. For the political elites, the huge extension of land in the Amazon was wasted by native peoples. In 1835, the Minister of Government and External Relations, Luciano Cano, stated in a letter: “Such miserable people possess a vast, rich and productive territory in which the nation might obtain huge advantages” (Larrabure i Correa, 1905; cited by Espinosa: p. 141). In October of 1893 the first Law on Immigration and Colonisation which declared that the state protects and fosters immigration was enacted. This is the beginning of Amazon occupation by settlers who expanded their land on native territory (Romero, 1978). Thus, the ‘rubber boom’ (late 1800s–1915) emerged in a context of lack of legal protection for natives. Jivaro resistance was remarkable during this period in which the indigenous Amazonian population was subject to extreme modes of slavery (ODECOFROC, 2009). According to Varese, 80% of the indigenous population of Putumayo River was killed, and in Madre de Dios many tribes were totally exterminated and others were very close to extinction (Romero, 1978). Many indigenous peoples who today live in voluntary isolation, based their decision on deaths caused by disease and persecution during the rubber boom, events which are still very much alive in their collective memories (Napolitano and Ryan, 2007). In 1904, the Awajun and Wampis sated of caucheros abuses, organised well-planned campaigns to kill them and eliminate all their projects (ITTO, 2007). " -The politics of indigenous self-determination page 130

Brazil

Refer to Felizardo Cerqueira, the catchizer in 1920s. Also refer to expedition against J.C.A + Carlos Scharff. Mention Acre revolution and Bittencourt conflict + bombing of Manaus.

Cinta Larga affected by rubber prospectors and Massacre at 11th Parallel where 3,500 natives were killed.

Excerpt from Omagua people page

"Infectious disease, slavery and forced labor took their toll on Cambeba population and culture throughout the 18th century. The Cabanagem Revolt (1835–40), in which slave-hunters were killed and plantations burned, led to a resurgence of ethnic identity among indigenous peoples in Brazil,[26] however by the 1850s new controls under the Indian Directorate system, plus new forced labor programs set up to further the extraction of rubber, discouraged Cambeba traditions and culture"

Bolivia

"World demand for rubber, though, proved to be the main driving force for exploring, colonizing and ―conquering‖ the region. The Amazonian rubber boom immersed all Latin American countries with Amazonian territories in an unprecedented boom and bust cycle. Yet, Bolivia‘s rubber boom cannot be understood without analyzing the cinchona boom. Many of the main players of the Bolivian rubber boom and many of its characteristics started with the cinchona boom and, for a few decades, cinchona and rubber co-existed as the main economic activities of the Bolivian Amazon"

" the Bolivian rubber areas never experienced an open rebellion or uprising, with the exception of the Acre rebellion."

Refer to N. Suarez Callau and A. V. Diez, refer to acquisition of rubber estates by Suarez. Tambopata Rubber Syndicate mentioned here or in Peru???? Enganche used in Bolivia as well as Peru.

The colonization process of Amazonian Bolivia began with the cascarilla boom, and was later reinvigorated with the rubber booms onset. Vallve Frederic points out the differences between Bolivia's history during the rubber boom and that of other rubber producing states.

• Populations exploited in Bolivia: Mascho-Piro, Harakmbut, Cashinahua <--- Need source, Araona, Tacana, Toromona, Moxo

• One small rebellion in 1887 mentioned by Vallve, page 351. La Estrella del Oriente ran an article stating "the Indians of San Lorenzo del Sécure had rebelled" They had ambushed a group of thirty men, and only nine of those men survived. This attack was carried out by Moxos natives who swore to "eliminate Trinidad‘s white race." "The uprising lasted for a few months." La Estrella del Oriente claimed that this rebellion had incapacitated trade in the Beni, Madeira and Santa Cruz area. See page 348 for account of Canichana natives joining a "punitive expedition" and hunting down the Moxo rebels. Apparently the government believed military intervention was necessary to end the rebellion, and blamed rubber entrepreneurs like Miguel Suarez for the uprising. "The local authorities gave

Guayocho [rebel leader] and his followers six hundred lashes and then proceeded to shoot them." "In an address to the National Congress, the Conservative President Gregorio Pacheco blamed the rebellion on the rubber barons and their mistreatment of the Moxo."

"The particular environment of the barraca may explain why, despite oppressive working conditions, there were very few organized uprisings during the Bolivian rubber boom. Barracas had a tight hierarchical order that categorized individuals by ethnicity. Most of the workers at the bottom of this order were indigenous peoples. Since barracas accommodated members from many disperse ethnic groups and workers labored isolated from each other, solidarity was difficult. The fact that most of the patrones and mayordomos were white cruceños also facilitated acculturation. Besides, workers did not have access to river transportation and were closely watched by armed guards."

— Frederic Vallve, The impact of the rubber boom on the indigenous peoples of the Bolivian lowlands

" Since the Moxo were among the main victims of the early rubber boom in the Madeira River, and the forced removal of Moxo Indians from their traditional ex-missions was the motivation behind these movements, their analysis is essential to understanding the dynamics of the Bolivian rubber boom. Open Moxo rebellions were quickly repressed and their leaders summarily executed, but the Moxo responded by adopting other strategies. Even though the rubber boom had greatly reduced their population and autonomy, they managed to recreate part of their mission culture in remote settlements away from the rubber areas or their supply routes. Through millenarian movements, the Moxo left, for the first time since Jesuit encounters, their savanna mission towns and became more Amazonian in the remote jungles of the Beni. These strategies were relatively successful, since rubber enterprises were forced to recruit indigenous labor elsewhere in the lowlands. Research on the Moxo also suggests that they carried out multiethnic alliances to better survive their environment"

— Frederic Vallve, The impact of the rubber boom on the indigenous peoples of the Bolivian lowlands

Following a centuries-old tradition, rifleros from Santa Cruz were

used to repress rebellious Indians and they were often paid with Indian laborers and/or property, which increased the violence of mestizo/Indian relations in the Beni. The result of these rebellions was that Indian communities in Moxos gradually lost their autonomy and its members were forced to work as semi-slaved laborers in local haciendas or in the rubber boom. The failure of armed rebellion also led to periodic messianic movements in search of a mythical land, which would have no whites and would recreate mission times. Many indigenous groups abandoned agriculture and interned themselves in the jungle to escape slave raiders and missions. The rubber boom was the final blow of a longestablished process. It "discovered" some groups, acculturated or destroyed others and

displaced most of them.

— Frederic Vallve, The impact of the rubber boom on the indigenous peoples of the Bolivian lowlands

Fitzcarrald

Source mentions the partnership with Fitzcarrald between Antonio de Vaca Diez, Nicolas Suarez. Formed after he crossed the Isthmus of Fitzcarrald in 1894.

Capelo's source mentions the Fiscarrald, Suarez y C. operating in Iquitos in 1900. Three years after the death of Fitzcarrald.

After the death of Fitzcarrald, Leopoldo Collazos settled between the Sepahua River and tributaries of the Purus River. He was apparently accompanied by 400-500 Kampa, Piro, and Amahuaca people from the Ucayali River. <- Piedraita mentions new routes of communication opened up. Next source, mentions the dispute over who discovered a portage route between Sepahua and Cujar, which was orginally a portage point used by the Piro. According to Gow, "What Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald 'discovered' was simply the Piro portage point between the Mishahua and Manú rivers...These were standard routes used by Piro people moving between river systems, and are regularly mentioned in the earlier literature."

• The Sepahua portage was apparently in the Urubamba valley while Cujar crossing is in the Purús valley. (see Da Cunha 1995:753–810 and Faura-Geig 1964)

Check Carlos Scharff article mention of Delfin Fitzcarrald's death at the hands of Amahuaca natives during the portage back to Sepahua.

The notable explorer, after presenting to the “infidel” the resources he brought and his small army, where the disparate physiognomies of the tribes he had subjugated were mixed, tried to demonstrate to him the advantages of the alliance that offered him counterpoint to the inconveniences of a disastrous fight. . For the only answer, the mashco asked him about the arrows he was carrying. And Fitzscarrald handed him, smiling, a Winchester capsule. The savage examined it for a long time, absorbed by the smallness of the projectile. He tried in vain to injure himself, rubbing the bullet hard against his chest. Failing to do so, he took one of his arrows; he stabbed it into the other arm, shattering it. He smiled, in turn, indifferent to the pain, contemplating with pride his own gushing blood... and without saying a word he turned his back on the surprised sertanista, returning to his tent with the illusion of a superiority that would soon be entirely undone. . In fact, half an hour later, around a hundred Mashcos, including the recalcitrant and naive chief, lay slaughtered on the bank, whose name, Playa Mashcos, still reminds us of this bloody episode...

— Euclides da Cunha, Os caucheros

https://euclidesite.com.br/obras-de-euclides/a-margem-da-historia/os-caucheros/

Carlos Scharff

Notability notes for Scharff's header paragraph

• Assumed operational control over Carlos Fitzcarrald's rubber enterprise
• Scharff facilitated rubber exploitation and commercial movement along the upper Purus River and the Madre de Dios river at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Source:Granero & Barclay, 2003
• Geographic society of Lima claims that he discovered a portage route along the Las Piedras River, connecting the Upper Purus River to the Madre de Dios River, around 1905.
• Used an enslaved indigenous workforce to produce rubber and clear routes through the forest.
• List of exploited tribes should be included in this section or later prose
• Forced the migration of numerous indigenous populations along the area his enterprise was operating at the time. Find source for which populations
• Heavily involved with the 1903-1904 border conflict between Peru and Brazil.
• Possibly include a reference from Da Cunha. Da Cunha stated he was the great land lord of the area he mentions, find source on his article for exact words.
• His own enterprise was worth 1.2 million sterling at one point.
• When he died he was three million dollars in debt.
• Possibly include reference by Bernucci.
• Consulate agent for Belgian for multiple years.

• Further notes

"A missionary reporyed that the atrocities committed in the Tambopata were worse than the Peruvian horrors and stated that when 'he visited the region of the Purus & Madre-de-Dios and was on the gomales of Carlos Scharff and Baldomero Rodriguez, who were practically agents of Arana... he saw the body of Mr. Byrne shortly after his death, and that the Indians had cut open his breast and stomach and had stuffed the account book of Scharff into the corpse as an act of revenge,'

• "worked in the region. The result, according to Tizon Y Bueno, was that the

production increased from 12.5 t in 1902 to 293 t in 1909."

The cauchero is in fact not just a completely new character in History; he is, above all else, antinomic and paradoxical. Even the most detailed ethnographic table has no space for him. At first glance he would seem to represent the common case of a civilized man gone native, in a terrifying backslide in which civilized characteristics are erased by primitive forms of activity. But that would be a mistake. He does not combine the counter-posed states to create a stable, defined activity that might be termed 'hybrid' He merely puts them side-by-side; he does not mixed them together. He is a case of psychic mimetism: a man who pretend to be a savage in order to defeat the savage. He is a gentleman and wild man according to circumstance ... . Or he may go directly from the most refined gallantry to the greatest brutality, leaving in between a captivating smile and impeccable manners, his gleaming knife in hand, he charges, with a bellow, the disobedient cholo who dares to cross him. Savagery is a mask that he puts on and takes off at will.(p. 52)

— Euclides da Cunha, Os caucheros, https://euclidesite.com.br/obras-de-euclides/a-margem-da-historia/os-caucheros/+ translation by

https://euclidesite.com.br/obras-de-euclides/a-margem-da-historia/os-caucheros/

• And the caucheros appear as the most advanced scouts of the sinister catechesis with iron and fire, which is exterminating the most interesting South American aborigines in those very remote hinterlands. - Da Cunha
• Da Cunha provides explanation regarding another factor of the migrations Scharff initiated: "The cauchero is forced to be a nomad devoted to combat, destruction and a wandering or riotous life, because the Castilloa elastica that provides him with the desired rubber, does not allow, like the Brazilian heveas, a stable exploitation, by periodically renewing the vital juice that they take it away."

His first working instruments are the Winchester carbine — the short rifle arranged in the braided branches —, the cutting machete that unlocks the vines, and the portable compass, orienting himself in the jumble of paths. They take them and launch a cautious search of the surroundings. They go in search of the savage that they must fight and exterminate or enslave, so that in the same way they will have complete security in their new job and arms that will support them.

— Euclides da Cunha, Os caucheros

The caucheros park there until the last bit of caucho falls. They arrive, they destroy, they leave. In general, they ask nothing of the land, apart from the meager plantations of yucas and bananas, to which the domesticated Indians dedicate themselves. The only regular, albeit small, agriculture that can be observed in Alto-Purus, beyond the last tents of our rubber tappers, and that of cotton, in the campas villages, which even in this betray the native independence: harvesting, carding, spinning, weaving and painting the cushmas with which they are covered, and descending from their shoulders to their feet, in the shape of long coarse togas. Thus, among the civilized strangers who rush there to injure and kill the man and the tree, parking only for the time necessary for both to become extinct, heading in other directions where they renew the same mishaps, passing like a devastating wave

— Euclides da Cunha, Os caucheros

But this antilogy is understandable. The adventurer goes there with the sole concern of getting rich and returning; return as soon as possible, escaping that melancholic and swampy land that seems to have no strength to support the material weight of a society. Accompanying him, at every juncture of his nervous and hasty activity, is the spectacle of vast cities, where one day he will shine, transforming the black gold of the rubber into sterling. Completely dominated by the incurable nostalgia for the native place, which he left precisely to revisit it, realizing resources that provide him with greater amounts of happiness — he throws himself into the forests: he buries and subdues the savages; resists malaria and fatigue; it agitates, madly, for four, five, six years; accumulates a few hundred thousand soles and suddenly disappears… He appears in Paris. He goes through six months of delirious life in the full splendor of noisy theaters and salons, without being discovered, clashing with the impeccable correctness of his clothes and manners, the slightest trace of professional nomadism. He ruins himself gallantly; and back... Relive the old work: another four or six years of forced labor; new fortune about to be acquired; again eager to return in search of lost fortune, in a stupendous oscillation from shining avenues to solitary forests.

— Euclides da Cunha, Os caucheros

At this point, above all, his irreparable inconstancy emerges. One of them, as we asked him, in Curanja, where he had married the very gentle amahuaca who had been watching him for ten years with the care of an exemplary wife, replied to us, slightly ironically:

— Me la han hecho regalo en Pachitea.

A treat, a gift, a piece of junk that he would abandon at the first opportunity, without care. Reportedly a businessman from that decaying village, which in Lima or Iquitos would be a beautiful model of a peaceful and abstemious bourgeois, there filled with women, he presents his scandalous harem to his friends and to the adventurous stranger, where the interesting Mercedes, with deer eyes, appears. , which cost him a battle against the coronauas and the charming Facunda, with her big, wild and wondering eyes, which cost him a hundred soles. And he narrates criminal trafficking, laughing, absolutely with impunity, and without fear.

There are no laws. Each one carries the penal code in the rifle he has left, and exercises justice as he wishes, without being called to account. On a day in July 1905, when a mixed reconnaissance commission arrived at the last caucheiro village of Purus, all those who made it up, Brazilians and Peruvians, saw a naked and atrociously mutilated body thrown onto the left bank of the river, in a clear space between the frecheiras. It was the corpse of an amahuaca. She had been killed for revenge, it was vaguely explained later. And the incident was no longer discussed — something new and very trivial in the stop, which was disturbed by the people who crossed it and did not populate it, and who passed by, leaving it even sadder with the rubble of the abandoned resorts...

— Euclides da Cunha, Os caucheros

http://ibamendes.org/A%20Margem%20da%20Historia%20-%20Euclides%20da%20Cunha%20-%20IBA%20MENDES.pdf ^ Page 60

Curanja, which was once a prosperous and lively station, is now in complete decline and lifeless, to which the removal of the "caucheiros" currently involved in the extraction of rubber contributes greatly. Those who exist here, like the others up to the headwaters, are entrusted, attached, or dependent on Mr. Carlos Scharf, who is, undeniably, the great land lord of all these places. I don't know if we'll find him in his Alerta shed, standing at the confluence of the Cujar and Curiuja. D. Carlos Scharf has around 400 men under his orders, fewer Peruvians than Hamauaca and Campas Indians, warlike and strong tribes that dominate these forests. Regarding the latter, there are alarming successes. Fearless and strong, the campas are the terror of the "caucheiros" themselves, and as there are many among them, semi-civilized and armed with rifles, this circumstance makes them even more fearsome due to their knowledge of our habits and resources.

— Euclides da Cunha

^June 29, 1905

Estes meios pacíficos, porém, são em geral falíveis. A regra é a caçada impiedosa, à bala. É o lado heroico da empresa: um grupo inapreciável arrojando-se à montaria de uma multidão.

Não se lhe pormenorizam os episódios.

Subordina-se a uma tática invariável: a máxima rapidez do tiro e a máxima temeridade. São garantias certas do triunfo. É incalculável o número de minúsculas batalhas travadas naqueles sertões onde reduzidos grupos bem armados suplantam tribos inteiras, sacrificadas a um tempo pelas suas armas grosseiras e pela afoiteza no arremeterem com as descargas rolantes das carabinas.

— Euclides da Cunha, Os caucheros

New notes on Scharff, 5/6/24 Scharff gained legal recognition to the territory his enterprise occupied in the Upper Purus River, and he owned the following important estates:

"*Hosanna, located three days' sailing in canoes above the mouth of the Chandless, with eighty rubber workers and fifty Piro families;

• Union, located three days from Hosanna, with one hundred rubber workers and fifteen Piro families;
• Santa Rosa, situated on the creek of the same name, one day's navigation from Union, served with forty rubber operators and twenty Piro and Campa families;"
• Cathay, with a large staff, with the main house or headquarters, the center of business
• Curanja, on the river of the same name, with seventy civilized workers and sixty Piro and Campa families;
• Shambuyacu, with Piro families; and
• Alerta, at the confluence of the Cujar and Curiuja rivers, which form the Alto Purus;

also having posts in Serjali, Sepahua, Mishahua and Madre de Dios, currently in operation."

Casa Santos y Cia. de Manaus referred to as an aviator of Scharff.

Scharff's company referred to both as "sociedad Carlos Scharff y Comp." "Sociedad Scharff y Cia."

Acquired foreign capital amounting to more than £800,000 prior to his conflict with Jose Cardoso de Rosa. Two other Brazilians were also involved in the conflict, Colonel Jose Ferrieria de Araujo and Lieutenant Colonel Eugenio Lages Cameiro, respectively owners of the stations Liberdade and San Sebastian on the lower part of the Upper Purus. <- Page also states that he was active along the Upper Jurua River prior in his early life.

Page 8 claims that Cardoso de Rosa attempted to collect on several debts that was owed to Fitzcarrald, and he was met with either rejection, or by several debtors asking for largely extended deadlines. Cardoso offered Scharff a business proposal, however Scharff rejected this deal. Cardoso then began his campaign to expel Scharff from the Purus River. The Brazilian government issued military appointments to Araujo, Lages Cameiro, and Cardoso, which became the leaders of a group that had around 300 men. The Brazilian invasion of the Upper Purus began in September of 1903. It appears that Scharff was arrested on September 19 of 1903. Francisco or Bartolome Zumaeta was arrested around that time. Need to investigate before a name is claimed.

Gabriel Sala

During his journey, Sala came across numerous indigenous villages that were abandoned shortly before his arrival at these locations. Sala and his group found "tools, cooking pots, and other traces of defeated colonist." Stefano Varese noted that during the time of Sala's journey, Indigenous people from the Pangoa, Negro and Perené rivers were rebelling against the "English of the Peruvian company" as well as other local settlers in those areas, which were denying indigenous people access to salt.

Cesar Cipriani

"The rubber dealers personally conduct frequent incursions into the Pajonal, and wherever they got they leave behind evidence of arson, pillage, and desolation; such is what we have observed on our journey, often finding burned homes, abandoned farms, Indians who have fled, and others who have taken shelter in deep and hidden ravines, where they still live in fear of being attacked."

"The savages of the Pajonal also possess good English Winchester shotguns which are provided in the Ucayali for the exchange of rubber, boys and women that are robbed from their neighbors. Such trade is repugnant to these people as they themselves have told us, but without being able to avoid it, because they rubber tappers and owners of stalls where they go in search of the necessary elements for their life, when giving them a piece of tocuyo or a few pounds of gunpowder, demand that if on the next trip, they do not cancel the debt that they have just contracted, by handing over a woman or boy, all protection will be withdrawn. Such an infamous tactic invariably followed those men without conscience, they encourage and force the savages to surrender to the so called correrías, which means murders, crimes, bloody scenes, all concluding with the theft of children and women and the complete disappearance of a family, whose weak and unfortunate members have to be traded material.

The Peruvian Corporation

Peruvian Corporation

See: https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v41/n19/iain-sinclair/diary

• note The Peruvian Corporation had operations along the Perene River and the Cerro de la Sal.
• There was an English colony on the Perene River by the late 1890s.

https://books.google.com/books?id=3BsOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA569&lpg=PA569&dq=%22Midgeley%22+%22Wholey%22&source=bl&ots=FadkEJmk2J&sig=ACfU3U2YErngEB-nzC30ezsrusGww3gc_w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjThuDZjMWHAxWfHUQIHTJQNM8Q6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Midgeley%22%20%22Wholey%22&f=false

^ document from E. de la Riva - Aguero refers to a murder of two Englishmen, Midegely and Wholey.

Bernadino Perdiz

"Bernardino Perdiz established his along the lower courses of the same river. In the eastern part, bordering on Brazil, it is known that the Acre River, fairly heavily populated on the Peruvian side, became a commercially significant site, receiving Brazilian and Bolivian motorboats navigating as far as the border settlement at Iñapari, and connecting these places with towns such as Manaos." page 50

"in Manu, another Spaniard Bernardino Perdiz, had extensive lands."

Upper Manu^?

Slavery and Utopia: The Wars and Dreams of an Amazonian World Transformer mentions the detention of six natives in 1915. Two were Conibo men who were accused of killing a station manager that worked for Perdiz, named Miguel Langredo, on the Sepahua River. Another two of these natives were Amahuaca, and they were accused of killing Alejandro Velasco, who owned an estate named Sampaya. The remaining two natives were a Conibo couple that was accused of participating in a series of killings at an estate named Chicosta.

Souza and Vargas

Pancho Vargas? + Rafael de Souza?

https://books.google.com/books?id=e3ZQAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA995&lpg=PA995&dq=%22Bernardino+perdiz%22&source=bl&ots=-oQCERcLVV&sig=ACfU3U2Pwq0YN1y3X_ci4ECgCE5FqEmpFg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiAoOGuteqEAxU55ckDHUauB2kQ6AF6BAgbEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Bernardino%20perdiz%22&f=false

Casa Suarez

Vaca Diez was operating in the rubber industry as early as 1880. Nicolas Suarez was officially operating in the rubber industry as early as 1881. Braillard & Claussen & Co by 1882 Salvatierra & Krauss 1892

Nicolas Suarez was the main creditor and financial enabler for Antonio de Vaca Diez, and after the river accident in 1897, Suarez was granted the power of attorney on the behalf of Vaca Diez's widow. Nicolas became the Orton (Bolivia) Rubber Company's representative in London, and after the firm declared bankruptcy he was granted their assets. The company's other creditors received nothing from the affair.

Suarez financed Antonio's voyages to Europe through credit, and Antonio continued to borrow further while in London. Vallve cites one witness account that stated Vaca Diez "borrowed £340,500 in London" After Vaca Diez's death, the Riberalta Press reported that his company owed the huge sum of £585,000 to Nicolas Suarez.

These assets include: "By this, Suárez Hermanos gained siringales in the Beni, Orton and Tahuamanu Rivers, 200 square leagues (1,000 square km) of vacant land, three steam launches, 250 workers, a yearly production of 7,000 arrobas (80,500 kg), of fine Pará rubber, which yielded £35,000 per year, 150,000 bolivianos of various merchandise, unknown numbers of cattle estancias, shipyards in Barraca La Florida, a house, and so forth. Bolivian courts dismissed the obvious accusations of conflict of interest, since Nicolás Suárez was, at once, creditor, representative and had power of attorney."

"In 1898, for example, the Orton Company advertised that, besides its siringales, it had carpentry, blacksmith and tin workshops, a general machine shop, dock-yards and an armory, steam machinery and steamboats, print shops in Ortón and Trinidad, its own estancias and it bought and sold cattle, horses and mules. Besides, it sold imported goods in stores in Ortón, Villa Bella, Trinidad, Riberalta, Reyes, Puerto Rico (in present-day Pando), and Iquitos. It also bought and sold local goods and bought fine rubber and sernambí. Its financial services included bank drafts drawn from banks in London, New York, Paris, Hamburg, Pará, La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz. It also sold weapons, munitions and offered credit, and merchandise for the exploitation of rubber."

Suarez was also able to recruit "large numbers of Fitzcarrald‘s Peruvian labor force" after the 1897 river accident. The exact number is unknown however Fitzcarrald "had placed an unspecified number of Peruvian mozos under the orders of the Bolivian mayordomo Zoilo Mercado." Presumably this Bolivian, Zoilo Mercado "partnered" with Suarez and therefore aligned his workers with Nicolas's enterprise.

By the turn of the century, the Suarez enterprise was emerging as the dominant rubber firm in its area of operation.

In 1902 the London office of the Suarez Hermanos announced that they owned £214,696 worth of assets and their liabilities were stated to be £128,552. According to Vallve Frederic, [who cites "'Estado de la Casa Suárez' in La Gaceta del Norte (Riberalta), 10 Jan. 1902, n°108" , I have no access to the source he cites.] most of those liabilities were advances of credit operating through the 'habilito' system, which is extremely similar to 'enganche por deudas'. [If not the exact same system.]

There was a Peruvian excursion against the Suarez estates on the upper Madre De Dios area in 1902 which was repelled by "Bolivian irregulars" that travelled along one of the Suarez steamships. See Lizzie Hessel P142

• Peruvian excursions since the beginning of the first Acre revolution mentioned by Vallve Frederic.

"Conflicts with Peru continued until a settlement was reached in 1912. After the settlement, many of Suárez‘s barracas were located within Peruvian territory, so Peruvian rubber companies compensated the Casa Suárez with £4000."

-Nicolas Suarez led the Porvenir column during the Acre revolution. LIZZIE HESSEL PAGE 142-143 MENTIONS SUAREZ + PORVENIR DURING CONFLICT.

From Bolivia, Nicolás Suárez was able to take advantage of his partnership with Fitzcarrald to claim rights to much of the Peruvian territory of the Madre de Dios and began raids towards the Inambari River, where his employees They killed many men and paid between 200 and 400 soles for each surviving individual of the Ese Eja, Iñapari and Harakbut Arasaeri who was captured, to take them to Bolivia to work in its rubber fields (Villalta, 1904a:6). https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00X2CB.pdf PAGE 138

https://www.google.com/books/edition/Anotaciones_y_documentos_sobre_la_campa/StJmAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1

"I was the owner of weapons and munitions and supplies that the campaign needed, I was the patrón of most of the men that had enlisted in the Columna Porvernir […] everything would have turned out differently had I just stayed in my hammock waiting for the development of events." - Nicolas Suarez

"The total costs were 20,777.83 bolivianos for the maintenance of the Columna Porvenir, this included 8,402.68 bolivianos for privates and 2,157.03 for fregueses. Other costs included destroyed chacos, stolen merchandise, and burned houses, anticipos to Brazilian fregueses who are now with the enemy and 5,000 arrobas of stolen rubber, totaling £70,000"

"In 1907, the National Delegate presented a report about the Acre campaign. " Suarez is reported to have given a donation of "4 Winchester rifles, 4000 bullets and supplies worth 2,023.00" presumably Bolivianos. Nicolas also offered the government a discount of %50 for purchasing boats from the Suarez and Orton Bolivian company's fleet.

Maximo and Baldimero Rodriguez

^Fought with Suarez over the Tahuamanu River.

My opinion, I could not find any information on the "Rodrigo" brothers, does this refer to the Rodriguez brothers??? Rodriguez was on the Tahuamanu River of the Madre de Dios.

"practically agents of arana" referring to Baldimero and Carlos Scharff on the Purus and Madre de Dios.

"The rubber tappers Spaniards Máximo Rodríguez and Mario Valdez in the rivers of north filled the void of the Iñapari escape with hand of Shipibo and Kichwa Runa work brought from the basins of the Ucayali, Napo and Putumayo, far from Madre de Dios (Rumenhöller, 2003a, 2003b and in the present book)."

https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00X2CB.pdf ^ P140 Same source and page provides a table detailing the distribution of land among rubber firms in the Madre de Dios.

"The crisis in the rubber economy intensified in 1914, but Bernardino Perdiz was able to maintain his farm in the Manu until 1921 when he closed it" page 149 ibid. ^^

Inca Rubber Company

p513-529

377–397

"The Peruvian government gifted the company 640,000 acres for building an 80 mile trail, completed in 1906, between Cusco and Juliaca linking the Tambopata River to the region and attracting commercial attention (Fawcett 1911; Gray 1996; Greer 1986; Wright 1908)."

Santo Domingo gold mine was located near the upper inambari river

“ During rubber extraction times, beginning in 1906, overland transportation be- tween the Madre de Dios Basin and the rest of Peru was by mule trail, built by the US-based Inca Mining Company /Inca Rubber Company under Government concession. That company had begun gold mining operations on the upper Inam- bari River in 1880 and went into rubber tapping farther north later on. That trail went from a railroad stop at Tirapata in highland Puno to the head of navigation on the Tambopata River at a point called Astillero, which is now on the boundary between Madre de Dios and Puno departments.”

DEFORESTATION IN MADE DE DIOS, ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR FIRST PEOPLES page 204

Further information on Peruvian Amazon Company characters

"The practices are completely proved. Not only the slaughter of the Indians during expeditions to enslave the natives of the Putumayo under pretext of civilising them and obtaining their services as labourers for the employers of that region on behalf of the companies Larranga, Arana, & Co., and the Peruvian Amazon Company, these employers being known as 'Jefes de Seccion' (Chiefs of Sections), and representing these companies on the Putumayo, is proved, but numerous other murders, not mere slaying, but under pretended cover of the law, by the lash, firearms, machetes, the stocks, starvation, and even by burning alive. These murders have not been commmitted through necessity or in personal defence, but simply to satisfy the criminal instincts and the most sordid avarice. All this has been completely verified, and, further that the employers delighted to violate native girls of eight years of age, many of whom died in consequence of their treatment. Pregnant women have been cut to pieces with machetes and shot, and thousands of Indians have been beaten, and the argument put forward in defence of all these crimes is that they have been committed legally. Corpses of Indians who have been assassinated and thousands of Indians who bear marks of the lash have been found in proof of these statements, and the statements of civilized men support the evidence of the natives." Paredes

"Majority of crimes, such as reputed acts of cruelty and also barbarous massacres, committed prior to 1907, more especially in 1901 and 1905, by Colombians and Peruvians."

Augusto Jiménez
Augusto Jiménez, manager of the ‘Morelia,’ a Peruvian Amazon Company plantation Photograph of Augusto Jiménez c. 1915
Born	Augusto Jiménez Seminario X X
Died	After 1928 X
Nationality	Peruvian
Occupation	Peruvian Amazon Company manager

c. 1912

Pablo Zumaeta
Photograph of Pablo Zumaeta c. 1915
Mayor of Iquitos
In office 1912–1912
In office 1914–1914
In office 1922–1923
Personal details
Born	Pablo Zumaeta Noriegea 1868
Died	19 June 1928(1928-06-19) (aged 59–60) Iquitos, Peru

Victor Macedo
Victor Macedo Photograph of Victor Macedo c. 1915
Born	Victor Macedo X X
Died	After 1913 X
Nationality	Peruvian
Occupation	General manager for the Peruvian Amazon Company

Abel Alarco
Photograph of Abel Alarco c. 1915
Born	Abel Alarco X X
Died	After 1913 X
Nationality	Peruvian
Occupation(s)	Rubber baron, director of the Peruvian Amazon Company

Adolfo Gibbs
Photograph of Adolfo Gibbs c. 1907
Born	Adolphus Gibbs 1886~ X
Died	After 1913 X
Nationality	Barbadian
Occupation	Agent of the Peruvian Amazon Company between 1904-1910

Carlos Scharff
Carlos Scharff, 1905 Photograph of Carlos Scharff c. 1905
Born	Carlos Scharff X X
Died	Disputed, either 1908,1909, or 1918 Las Piedras, Peru
Nationality	Peruvian?, German descent
Occupation	Rubber baron

Putumayo genocide prior to PAC

"Before the white man came, if these people can be called white men, the Indians between the Putumayo and Japura must have been among the most numerous and most desirable of the Indians of the whole Amazon valley. The reasons for this one can only guess at, so little is still known of the region. I have a theory which will be developed later on when I come to deal more closely with the Indians and their customs. Of the fact of their recent numbers there is no question. It was up the Japura the Portuguese slave raiding gangs chief came. Lt Maw, in 1827, noted this when at Egga. This raiding for men, or rather boys and girls of the Indians, has been going on for over 100 years, and up to recent years by the Brazilians or Portuguese. "It was up this stream [Cahuinari] that the Portuguese and Brazilian slaving bands chiefly came, Tizon says."

• Reyes Hermanos - Claims to have abolished slavery and to have fought slave traders in the Putumayo region. They controlled navigation of the river between 1874-1884. Reyes owned the steamships Tundama, Apihi, Larroque, and Colombia. A Peruvian named Benavides submitted a proposal to the government of Brazil in 1892, with the intention of acquiring the Reyes concession on the Putumayo and resuming commercial operations. After Benavides's death, the concession passed onto a Colombian nmaed Manuel Velez Uribe. He made six journeys to the Putumayo, two in 1899, three in 1900 and the sixth was in 1901. See footnote on History of the Peruvian Amazon Company, Uribe was attacked by a Peruvian force, and Thomson emphasized this established the precedence for Arana's business practice.

^1 Steamship sank, the others were sold. Tundama was the steamship which sank. Nestor Reyes was said to have been cannibalized by Mirañas natives. There is an account that stated deponent found Nestor's body, "scarcely cold"

"In this regard, Reyes commented on the episode of the illness and death of a large number of the Indians of Cosacuntí, which Reyes describes as group of about 500 beautiful and robust Indians whom he had visited on his first steam voyage and with whom he has since established relations of exchange. When he visited them the second time, these The Indians had been victims of a rampant consumption - says Reyes - that literally annihilated them physically." "La explotación quinera en el piedemonte amazónico. ..." ^Source also claims Nestor Reyes committed suicide.

https://books.google.com/books?id=Gfz2uRc_3-IC&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=%22N%C3%A9stor+Reyes%22+%22suicid%C3%B3%22&source=bl&ots=qX-LO9zGMM&sig=ACfU3U0l_bkG_GVeyaMvqihNOms6iadZLg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjm2dCPgoGGAxU9G9AFHTWBCQg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw#v=onepage&q=%22N%C3%A9stor%20Reyes%22%20%22suicid%C3%B3%22&f=false

"Regarding the tragic death of Nestor Reyes, I will tell you: he committed suicide by jumping from a ravine into the Putumayo River. The indigenous people of Putumayo who live near La Sofia, the site of the event, are not anthropophagous, and how, after a cannibalistic feast, could they find, tibias, fibulas, tarsi and metatarsals gathered together to later place them in a church? This is a matter of common sense. I was in La Sofia that day on my way back from the Amazon, when Nestor disappeared, and three days after searching for him on all the dirt roads with about sixteen people. the death body was found half an hour below the port, almost unknowable; he was buried in a cellar that was used to store quinas. That's all I can assure you because I saw it." page 141 of https://books.google.com/books?id=Gfz2uRc_3-IC&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=%22N%C3%A9stor+Reyes%22+%22suicid%C3%B3%22&source=bl&ots=qX-LO9zGMM&sig=ACfU3U0l_bkG_GVeyaMvqihNOms6iadZLg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjm2dCPgoGGAxU9G9AFHTWBCQg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw#v=onepage&q=%22N%C3%A9stor%20Reyes%22%20%22suicid%C3%B3%22&f=false Statement by Gerardo de la Espriella in 1912, July 6.

https://www.scribd.com/document/456253832/Gomez-Augusto-Putumayo-Indios-Mision-Colonos-y-Conflictos-1845-1970-Ed-Universidad-Del-Cauca-2005 ^Page 181 seems to confirm suicide of Nestor Reyes.

• Cabrera & Cuellar Company - Owned Nueva Granada

• Ordonez & Martinez Company - Had a business relationship with Crisostomo Hernandez? Rocha stated he arrived at an agency called Garaparana, which was owned by Ordonez & Martinez, and Antonio Ordonez resided there. There was also a house built on a hill which was the residence of Crisostomo Hernandez.

-^

• Urbano Gutierrez - 1906 expedition to the Caqueta was sent from Florencia, in the Colombian department of Tolima. One of the most notable victims of the 1903 massacre of Colombians was an Emilio Gutierrez, likely related to the Urbano Gutierrez firm. <- Source also mentions Urbano Gutierrez and Tolima department. | The way the massacre is described to Casement insinuates that there was only one attack against the Colombians. I believe Rocha clarifies there was at least three separate attacks around the same time against the Colombians around this time. See for Casement's documentation of the event, relayed to him by Andres O'Donnell. "they 'had a repugnance to eating white men, whom they hated too much.'" <- 152 details some of the reprisal made against the natives due to this incident, including raids by the Colombian Sanchez and Bolivian Normand.

• !!! Rafael Uribe Uribe [I believe he's a Colombian] claimed that Emilio Gutierrez and sixty-six of his companions were murdered over the course of a month by the agency of La Chorrera, which belonged to Larranaga, Arana & C.. The merchandize and rubber at the attacked stations were looted, afterwards the settlements were burned down. Uribe's claim was based on a complaint filed to the Colombian courts by a cauchero named Aurelio Gasca. Joaquin Rocha mentions that Gasca was a businessman at Tres Equinas. Uribe also claimed that Benjamin Larranaga died from symptoms of arsenic poisoning shortly after the attacks on Gutierrez. Larranaga had raised complaints in opposition of Arana's business methods against his competitors, and his conquest of territory in the area.

• Uribe's information declares that Rafael Larranaga was separated from his father for a time, and then called back to La Chorrera when Benjamin was near death. Rafael was informed that his father was dying from "alcoholic cerebal congestion" which was a claim reinforced by Eugene Robuchon, a French explorer who had pharmaceutical experience. A justice in Iquitos recognized Rafael as the successor to his fathers estate however he separated from the Arana firm, along with Jacob Barchillon. Juan B. Vega offered them an "insignificant sum" for their rights to property in the Putumayo.

"The motto of the Arana House is that whoever does not serve him blindly hinders him and consequently he fires him or eliminates him. Say so, if not, the aforementioned French pharmacist, complicit in the poisoning of Benjamin Larranaga. It is said that he disappeared among the Putumayo Indians. The truth is that he is no longer part of the living. He probably committed suicide."

• Larranaga family - Entered the Putumayo region during the early 1880s. Possibly earlier. Benjamin Larranaga [1851-1903] died from arsenic poisoning in December of 1903 and his son Rafael was imprisoned afterwards before being forced to sell his share of La Chorrera. Benjamin Larranaga is credited as the founder of La Chorrera. Casement's information stated that Benjamin was part of Rafael Reye's original expedition to the Putumayo in the 1870s. Benjamin accumulated debts, and he eventually had to make Jacob Barchilon a business partner. See imagenes e suceso page 86. That page also gives a history of Larranagas settlement + expansion of La Chorrera. They initially sold rubber to Brazilians on the lower Putumayo.| "one of the pioneers of the Putumayo rubber business" Gregorio Calderon sold his property around the same time as the Larranagas.

• La Florida was owned by Calderon, Arana y Compania prior to 1904.

• Crisostomo Hernandez - One of the first "Conquistadores" of the Putumayo region.

• Paredes's information claims that in 1895 Benjamin Larranaga, his son Rafael, along with Angel Enriquez, Ildefonso Gonzales, Gregorio Calderon, and two other people landed at Puerto de los Monos, on the Caqueta River. They travelled down the Igara Paraná River and had contact with natives of the Uramas nation at the location of Ultimo Retiro. Another expedition was sent down the Igara Paraná River, with Benjamin Larranaga, Rafael, Angel Enriquez and Ildefonso Gonzalez. "They passed through places where there were houses of

Indians and reserved to conquer them later." This group proceeded down the river until they were obstructed by a waterfall, which would later become known as La Chorrera. Larranaga sent a message for some of his workers at Ultimo Retiro to travel down to the point of the waterfall in order to establish a settlement.

Imagenes e sucesos p86-87

Part 1 of the Paredes Report contains Paredes's account of the Larranaga campaign from the Caqueta into the Igara Parana area. Casement notes that Paredes emphasized that these Colombians were "invaders of the national soil", and that Arana entered the region to trade with them. | Casement dates the arrival of Benjamin's expedition to 1886 where as Paredes information it is stated to have occurred in 1895.

First contact between Arana and the caucheros in the Putumayo region was in 1896 when the steamship Galvez, captained by Lizardo Arana, travelled down the Caraparana River and bought 6 tons of rubbers. - P 87 imagenes e sucesos0

"From this first visit The Aranas set to work first to trade with the Colombians, then to purchase their interest in the region and to 'buy the tribes of Indians they had conquered,' and finally to conduct, as the avowed agents of Peruvian aggrandisement, a regular campaign against 'these bad people,' and thus successfully to 'nationalise a territory that had been almost lost through foreign aggression.'

Natives of the Aymenes nation began to extract rubber for the Larranaga's at La Chorrera.

-Note that the Aymenes nation only appears in the literature of El Proceso, and it seems that these mentions date to >1903. This nation may be extinct.

imagenes e sucesos p85

"The first Colombian invasion of the Putumayo regions took place, I am informed, in the early 'eighties, some of my informants stated about 1886. The earliest of these 'conquistadores' were Crisostomo Hernandez and Benjamin Larranaga, who entered the region in search of the inferior kind of rubber there produced known as 'sernambi' or 'jebe debil' (weak fine rubber). The banks of these two rivers and the whole of the region inhabited by the Huitotos, the Andokes, and the Boras Indians area fairly well stocked with trees that furnish the milk out of which the inferior rubber is elaborated. The Putumayo Indians merely gashed the tree with a knife or machete, and catching the milk as it exudes in little baskets made of leafs they wash it in their steams of running water and pound it with wooden pestles into long sausage-shaped rolls, termed in Peruvian rubber parlance 'chorizos,' which ultimately are placed upon the market just as the Indian carries them in to whoever may be locally exploiting him and his neighborhood. That these wild Indians welcomed the coming into their country of Hernandez, LArranaga, and the other Colombians who succeeded these earliest of the modern 'conquistadores,' it would be absurd to assert. They were doubtless glad to get machetes,, powder, and caps for the few trade guns they possessed, with the prospect even of acquiring more of these priceless weapons themselves, along with such trifles as beads, mirrors, tin bowls, basins, fish-hooks, and tempting tins of sardines or potted meats - all of them articles of little intrinsic value, but of very attractive character to the Indian dwelling in so inaccessible a region. Had any form of administrative authority accompanied the early settlers or searchers for Indians, as the should rightly be termed, their relations with these wild inhabitants of the forest might have been controlled and direct to some mutually useful end. But the 'caucheros' came as fillibusters, not as civilisers, and were unaccompanied by an executive officers representing a civilised control. The region was practically a no-mans land, lying remote from any restraining authority or civilising influence, and figuring on maps of South America as claimed by three separate republics.

• - Recounts the murders of Camilo Gutierrez, Roberto Gutierrez and sixteen of his companions, reported by Jesus Antonio Gutierrez. This deposition claims that Camilo Gutierrez had a claim on a large sum of money owed by Arana's firm to Francisco Gutierrez, because Camilo was appointed as the latter's heir. The deponent stated that this became an incentivizing factor to dispose of Camilo. While Camilo was travelling on a boat with several Peruvians, he was betrayed and "chained with heavy irons and thrown into the bottom of the river." Prior to the killing of Camilo, Roberto Gutierrez along with sixteen of his companions were incarcerated by a group of Peruvians, and executed after being tied to trees.

• Hardenburg deponent stated that on February 1908, Amadeo Burga arrived with eight Peruvian soldiers at an outpost belonging to Ildefonso Gonzales. Burga threatened the deponent and stated that if Burga caught him elsewhere on the Napo River, then Burga would kill him.

Deponent afterwards learned that on the Tamboryacu River, Burga, along with his soldiers, ordered Matias Perez to congregate all of his workers to inform them that they were now under the employment of Arana's firm. Burga then told Perez that if he did not sell his estate for twenty pounds, then Burga would kill him. Burga also "forcibly took possession" of one of Gonzalez's daughters at the Torres estate (El Pensamiento) Muriedas claims that Ildefonzo Gonzales was murdered during the journey to transfer his peons to the Tamboryacu River.

• 20 pounds for an estate worth 300 pounds

^ Julio F. Muriedas is the deponent. Statement signed by Fortunato M. Pizarro.

• Source corroborates that Perez's estate was seized prior to El Pensaimento affair. Burga had Perez's house surrounded by the soldiers, before entering the house with a carbine in hand. Burga ordered Perez to organize his natives, before Burga marched them away to Pensamiento. Pensamiento also known as Triunfo was managed by the Torres brothers, and it came into their possession through the will of Aparico Munoz. Burga arrived on the warship Requena with government soldiers. Burga stated that he arrived at Pensamiento to witness the transfer of this estate from Torres to a man named O'Donnell, who was employed by Arana's firm. According to R. Torres, Burga seized the estate, as well as the personal belongings on the estate, by "violent possession." The Torres deponent was disarmed and Burga threatened him to leave or he would be sent to Iquitos in chains.

• Matias Perez - "This Matias Perez had been a settler there [Tamboryacu] for fourteen years and possessed an establishment and several peons, obtained from one of the conquistadores of that river." -Julio Muriedas.

The topic of cannibalism

"Lieutenant Maw, declares that when he passed Egga, a Brazilian settlement on the middle Amazon in 1827 he found a pen of Indian captives awaiting their doom. Those people were kindly treated, were even well fed, strange it may seem, and according to Lieutenant Maw had little fear of the approaching death. The one singled out for execution was killed by a poisoned arrow from a blow-pipe, the effect of which is well-nigh instantaneous and so stupefying that death comes unaccompanied by great pain, Lieutenant Maw believed that the practice of eating their fellow man had been forced upon the Indians by Portugese and Brazilian free-booters, who in hunting them for slaves had driven them away from their natural resorts where food was more easily obtained to hide in the depths of the forest where preying upon each other became to some extent a law of life."

See pages 136-137 of Casement 2003 for account of cannibalism by Rocuhon. Was this account published with El Putumayo y sus Affluentes? Angus Mithcell wrote "It was also rumored that what purproted to be his [Robuchon's] diary was in fact mainly concocted and forged." Robuchon's book, which was posthumously published, was edited by Carlos Rey de Castro.

On Arana himself

Moved his family to Biarritz in 1907, find source in Goodman Article should mention his general managers, Loayza and Macedo, earlier in the prose En el Putumayo y sus affluentes mentions assets in the Purus and Sepahua, possibly Madre de dios, check to confirm Casement 2003 stated Arana was going to the Madre de Dios to collect on debts [that may have amounted to l/b 200,000] find page moved to europe around 1913 el proceso has information on arana's arrest warrant and those of his subordinates red book has some history on rise of arana

Investigate relationship with: Carlos Rey de Castro Prefect Zapata

Investigate acquisitions of: Liberal Steamship Cecilio Plata's estate and the conquest of Caqueta River Operations along the Napo River Sinking of Carapanama steamship in 1904 Acquisition of other steamships, mentioned on this sandbox Judicial file of 1907 Arrest warrant and dismissal of the warrant Relationship with the Morey's and other politicans Relationship with rubber patrons in the Putumayo post-PAC Further notes on Arana's influence in Iquitos Blackmail and propaganda used by Arana, including the work of Silvino Santos.

===Elias Andrade

https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/boletin/article/view/331940/20803532

^ "The rubber tapper who has been most referenced for this subregion is the “Ecuadorian” or “Peruvian” merchant Elías Andrade, 15 who by the end of the 19th century is called the “King of Napo” ( Domínguez and Gómez 1990 , 1994). Andrade had managed to establish black rubber collection posts between Aguarico, Lagartococha and Putumayo, and trade routes between Napo and Iquitos, exporting the rubber under the Peruvian flag to the port of Iquitos in Peru (cit. in Vicuña, 1993 ). However, in these investigations it is not possible to establish the development of the activities carried out by Andrade."

History of the Peruvian Amazon Company

Important incidents

• 1900 Peruvian war launch entered the Putumayo River and a customs house as well as a River Commissionership was established at Cotuhé. The war ship was named the Cahuapanas

• February 11, 1901, a Peruvian force established at Cothue fired upon a tug-boat named Victoria, which was owned by a Colombian named Manuel Velez Uribe. See footnote.

• 1903 massacres of Ocainas and Huitotos at La Chorrera

• 1905 uprising at Ultimo Retiro REFER TO SANDBOX 2 FOR THIS

• 1906 raid against Urbano Gutierrez on the Caqueta

• 1908 attacks on the Caraparana
• PAC reports small-pox epidemic occurred at the beginning of 1909.

• Katenere's rebellion

• Atenas rebellion

Roughly 1,000 employees by 1907.

"The waters of the Putumayo silently dragging along in their current the corpses of David Serrano, the owner of "La Reserva." or Ordonez and Prieto owners of La Union, of L. Melo Pulido, Juan Escobar, Rafael Cano, Fernando Rumaya, Felix Lemos, Vicente and Francisco Ramirez, Ramon Castro, Luis Jaramillo, Juan Anocana, Benjamin Munoz, Abelardo Rivera, Manuel Herazo, and a thousand more civilized Colombians, owners of undertakings... ^I've heard of the Munoz name but none of the others except for owners of Reserva + Union.

"David Brown says there are heaps of Huitoto slaves here in Iquitos - any number, and they are sold."

• SEE P706 OF CASEMENT 1911 FOR PAREDES ESTIMATION OF VICTIMS, NEXT PAGE MENTIONS FLOGGING + 1903 MASSACRE AT CHORRERA

See P699-700 of Casement 1911 for five massacres singled out by Paredes

"I think Julio Arana may claim the individual merit of having established and run for several years the biggest slave and murder pen in the world. The quantity of rubber for the six years up to the 31 December 1i1o it is seen from the foregoing figures amounted to 2,947,802 tons (₤966,00) and during those six years fully 9000 Indians have been done to death by torture, flogging, burning and murder."

• "Those men were murderers and torturers by profession - as their crimes swelled so should their fortunes. Whole tribes were handed over to them by a lawless syndicate which had no title-deed to one yard of land or one sapling rubber tree, and they were supplied with the armaments necessary to reduce these people to a terrified obedience and given a wholesale interest in the terror."

• Colombians blamed for the atrocities occurring in the Putumayo. Specifically Arana did this to shareholders, "by inference largely." According to Casement the Prefect of Loreto in Iquitos had openly blamed the Colombians. On multiple occasions in Casement's Amazon Journal Juan A. Tizon also blames the Colombians for the crimes.

• "detailed descriptions of floggings of this kind were again and again made to me by men who had been employed in the work. Indians were flogged not only for shortage in rubber, but still more grievously if they darted to run away from their houses, and by flight to a distant region, to escape altogether from the tasks aid upon them. Such flight as this was counted a capital offence, and the fugitives, if captured, were often tortured and put to death as brutally flogged."

India Rubber Journal gives the following numbers for the Peruvian Amazon Company shareholders as of December 30th, 1910

• Julio Arana - 98,501 shares
• Abel Alarco - 50,000 shares
• Lizardo Arana - 50,000 shares
• Arana & Co. - 409,973 shares
• Thomas F. Medina - 40,000 shares
• Pablo Zumaeta - 50,000 shares

"YIELD OF INDIA-RUBBER FROM THE PUTUMAYO INDIANS, SHIPPED TO ENGLAND THROUGH THE IQUITOS CUSTOM-HOUSE.

1900 15,863 kilogs

1901 54.180

1902 123,210

1903 201,656

1904 343,499

1905 470,592

1906 644,897

1907 627,661

1908 489.016

1909 398,723

1910 316,913

1911 95,448 (up to the 30th June)" "Total in eleven years 3.686.210 + 236.500 - 3.922.500"

}}}}

"The following table is compiled from official sources (the Iquitos customs house) up to the 30th June last, while the other figures are derived from private sources that I [Casement] know to be reliable.

Reciepts of Rubber from the Putumayo During the year 1911 : 

From January 1 to June 30 1911 - Shipped through the Iquitos custom house 95,448 Kilos Otherwise disposed of Sold by P. Zumaeta to Barcia Hermanos 40 tons Lost in sinking of steam-ship Asturiana 35 tons Now brought to Iqutios in Government chartered launch Beatriz 41 tons Now brought to Iquitos by the Arana steam-ship Liberal 25 tons Quantity since June 30 last 141 tons Total amount of India rubber delivered in 1911 from the labour of the Putumayo Indians 236.5 tons

Asturiana belonged to the Barcia Hermanos. The Asturiana was supposed to transport another 80 tons of rubber. That firm is included in the list above^

"The Beatriz was for the time being a Government vessel, chartered at a considerable cost from a trading firm here. It brought back from the Putumayo in addition to the government military passengers forty-one tons of rubber the property of the Arana firm and several agents of the company. No freight has been charged by the government for the conveyance of this large and valuable consignment. Mr Cazes, the owner of the vessel says that this is in accordance with an agreement that has been in existence for years between the Peruvian government and the Arana company. All the Peruvian soldiers and officers and such stores etc. as were sent for their use conveyed by the vessels of the Peruvian Amazon Company were carried to and from Iquitos and the Putumayo free of charge. Not only was this the case, but the detachments there were lodged and fed very largely at the Company's expense..."

CARLOS ZUBIAUR WAS THE CAPTAIN OF THE BEATRIZ IN 1910!! In 1908 he was captain of the Liberal steamship. The Cosmopolita steamship was owned by Arana's company as early as 1907, documented in PAC prospectus. A. Cabrejos was the captain at the time. Cosmopolita mentioned by Hardenburg. The ship stopped at Chorrera while Liberal was on the expedition against Colombian settlers. Cosmopolita later arrived at the location of the Liberal, which Hardenburg was a prisoner on at the time, and both ships travelled to Iquitos, arriving on Feburary 1st, 1908. The Liberal had rubber collected from El Encanto, collected from PAC slave labor, and rubber collected from the Colombian settlements which were raided.}}

"During the several years that the Arana syndicates have been controlling the Putumayo, and using the government forces in the furtherance of their lawless ends against either Colombian settlers or native Indians the local value of the services rendered by this so-called trading company to the Peruvian Government must have amounted to many thousands of pounds in the matters of passage and victualling alone. The agreement no doubt worked to the satisfaction of both parties. Messrs. Arana and Co (it is really absurd to use the name of the ineffectual London Company at any stage of the business) obtained the military help and prestige of Peru in attacking, murdering and pillaging the Colombian settlers on the Cara-Paraná in securing their rubber and enslaving fresh tribes of Indians, while the government through 'this patriotic action' of the Aranas extended the frontiers of the 'national territory' and became possed of regions to which it had not any moral or lawful claim."

"The number of Indians killed either by starvation - often purposely brought about by destruction of crops over whole districts or inflicted as a form of death penalty on individuals who failed to bring in their quotas of rubber - or by deliberate murder by bullet, fire, beheading, or flogging to death, and accompanied by a variety of atrocious tortures, during the course of these twelve years, in order to extort these 4,000 tons of rubber, cannot have been less than 30,000, and possibly came to more. A population officially put at 50,000 should in ten years have grown by natural increase to certainly 52,000 or 53,000 souls, seeing that every Indian marries - a bachelor or spinster Indian is unknown - and that respect for marriage is ingrained in uncivilised Indian nature and love of children, probably the strongest affection these people display. By computations made last year and the year before by officials and by those interested in the prosperity of the Peruvian Amazon Company, the existing population of the entire region is now put at 7,000 Indians (the lowest calculation to 10,000, the highest. See further quote. RC mentions the Peruvian officer who made a correlation to the battlefield of Miraflores.

"Dr. Paredes declares that some of the sections, notably those of the Rodriguez Brothers and Normand are so sown with human remains as to resemble battlefields."

"Señor Julio Arana in a letter to a French firm, written in the spring of this year, wherein he seeks to dispose of his interests in the Putumayo asserts that the value of the rubber received (2.947.803 kilogs) from that river during the six years ended 31st December last amounted to ₤966,000.

Predecessors of the Peruvian Amazon Co.

• Morey, Vega y Compania
• Arana y Vega Ltda.
• Arana Vega y Compania
• Larrañaga, Arana y compañia
• Larrañaga, Ramírez y Cia
• Calderón, Arana & Compañía !
• Perez & Arana Compañía
• J.C. Arana y Hermanos
• Amazon Colombian Rubber Trading Co.

BRAULIO Cuellar = Cuemani River Arístides Rodriguez y Hermano(s) [?] Referred to as such in Valcarcel, section with letters.

". En 1902, según el libro de cuentas, habta 12.000 índígenas a su servicio, pertenecientes a 5 grandes tribus (Huitoto, Bora, Monamos, Andoque y Navajas (sic), éstas a su vez divididas en 170 agrupaciones (Enrique de Espinar, en Laburre Correa, 1905). "

"In 1903, Putumayo produced, according to the Iquitos customs, rubber for a total of 500,000 pounds. sterling; in 1905, the sum would double (Collier, 1968, 62)."

"I on the dates given below purchased the undermentioned businesses at the prices set against them respectively, viz:

28th March, 1904, Jacob Barchilon - 5,000

28th November 1904, Carlos Lemas - 3,500

2nd July, 1905, formed Company with Calderon

paying him and releasing him from the amount he owed, viz., about -70,000

29th June 1905, Paid out Ramon Sanchez and released his debt - 700

25h November, 1905, Larranaga & Co. - 25,000

21st January, 1907, Perez en dissolution, Perez & Arana - 12,000

5th Febriary, 1907, Ordonez Martinez (Mortgage on La Union and Remolino) - 5,500

16th July, 1910, Ordonez & Martinez purchase including Mortgage 8,800"

"The centres above referred to at one time amounted to as many as 45, but the number thereof has now been reduced to about 20" - Arana

Estates

• La Chorrera was owned by the Larranaga's and Macedo at the beginning of 1904. Macedo continued to manage the property for Arana.
• El Encanto was owned by the Calderon brothers, and acquired by Arana in 1904. According to Delia del Pilar Otero (page 88), the Calderon's were forced to sell their property to Arana. (Around 1904)
• Providencia was also apparently built by the Calderons.
• Matanzas was founded in 1904 in partnership with Ramon Sanchez, who was reported for abusing the Barbadians. Debts bought by Arana the next Year.
• Entre Rios built in 1903 or prior to.
• Pensamiento on the Napo River acquired from David Cazes.
• Multiple Colombian enterprises raided in 1907 by the Peruvian Amazon Company and Peruvian soldiers. Including La Unión, La Reserva, and El Dorado. Arana had previously tried to acquire these estates without force.

Casement 1911 P643 states that Bartolome Zumaeta led the 1908 massacre of twenty-seven Colombians at La Union. See bottom of that page for reference to PAC employees arrested for the 1908 incidents [they were later released by the prefect, was this Braga, or Zapata by chance?] Zumaeta escaped to Abisinia and worked w/ Aguero + Jimenez. Later killed in 1909 by Katenere

^Commander Pollack issued the arrest warrants for 1908 incident. ^^ I believe Bartolome Zumaeta was arrested with Carlos Scharff around the Purus, and sent to Manaos. I am unaware on how much time passed between that incident with Scharff and the events of 1908.

https://books.google.com/books?id=LKcJAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA35&lpg=RA2-PA35&dq=%22carlos+scharff%22+%22Zumaeta%22&source=bl&ots=X2hnloRUJw&sig=ACfU3U0faGGOhlbyF8n17yEMU2LgYQ4vHA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjVwcPJ2O-FAxVb7ckDHRjuAvQQ6AF6BAgYEAM#v=onepage&q=%22carlos%20scharff%22%20%22Zumaeta%22&f=false

Victor Macedo had around 80,000 soles, or around ₤8,000 after his dismissal from the Peruvian Amazon Company. "Dr. Paredes became convinced not only that those crimes were committed with Señor Macedo's knowledge, but that he himself had personally committed crimes against the Indians. Macedo had left the Putumayo before the date of Dr. Parede's arrival there, and had gone to Lima in receipt of a considerable sum from the Peruvian Amazon Company. He had, in addition to whatever salary and commissions were due to him, received a 'special gratification' from Señor Zumaeta of ₤2,000."

"The prefect caame as the guest of Senor Julio Arana, who learning of the critical state of things and of the resolute action of Commandant Polack, hurried up from Manaos, brining with him Senor Carlos Rey de Castro, the Peruvian consul-general in that town. This journey of Senor Arana in company with these two Peruvian officers of high rank is really the key to the whole subsequent situation. Both these officials were bought byb senor Arana. The proof of Senor de Castro's purchase is in the books of the Peruvian Amazon Company at Manaos. It amounted last year to a sum of between lb4,000 and lb5,000 due by Senor de Castro to the company, which cannot be accounted for by any services the Peruvian consul-general in Manaos could have legitimately rendered to an English trading company." further important info.

Estates that need further research

• What estate did Arana take from Crisostomo Hernandez?
• Citation for Calderon initially owning El Encanto. In Hardenburg's words the Calderon's and Hipolito were robbed by the Aranas "according to their custom."

Argelia

• Argelia was owned by Hipolito Perez and Faustino Hernandez, the latter of which was murdered by the instigation of Miguel S. Loayza. The estate was acquired by the Arana's in 1904 or 1905. According to Delia del Pilar Otero (page 88), Hipolito was forced to sell his position, like the Calderon brothers of El Encanto had to. (Fronteras, etnocidio y comercio mundial.

La Amazonía peruana-colombiana durante el boom cauchero).

• claims that Hipolito Perez was one of the first Colombians to associate with the Aranas. The estate of Argelia was sold to Perez for (l/b)5,000, a sum which the author claims that estate could produce in two years. || Joaquin Rocha page 119 claims that Hipolito Perez was "one of the most well-off residents of" the Igaraparana River at the time of his [Rocha's,] voyage. ... "this gentleman, having risen in social scale from as low a position as the other, acquired such social manners and culture that it seems as if he had been educated, from childhood, at the side of the most accomplished gentlemen." Rocha 119.
• 11034: "it says that the Arana firm owed a man, by the name of Justino Hernandez, money which would no doubt appear in the books of the firm." 11035: "He was killed? - He was killed." 11037 states that the account ledger for that year was lost, or had not been produced to the committee. Parliamentary Papers V14 1913.

Catalogue of crime page 88 contains an eyewitness deposition from Juan Vela recollecting the murder of Justino Hernandez at Argelia. Luis Alcorta, "Aguilar" and "Suarez" are singled out as the Hernandez's killers.

"The case is that the senor Luis Alcorta had exchanged some words with Hernandez and, not accepting latter's invitation to thrash him, went upstairs and came down with Suarez, both armed. They then let fly at poor Hernandez, who had been shut up in a room by his friends. They discharged some thirty or forty rifle and revolver bullets at him and, at last, wounded him with many balls. When on the point of dying, he struggled to Alcorta, whose revolver was empty, and gave him a blow with his empty carbine that broke the latter's head: then he fell to the ground in his death agonies and Suarez and the negro Aguilar finished him with bullets in the head." - Catalogue of crime p88 Juan Vela.

"[t]he manger, senor Loayza, punished nobody." ... "Afterwards, they tried to say that some individuals had attempted to rebel; it is a lie, senor Saldana, the ten or twelve foreigners there, were ten or twelve without arms, who fled to the forest, when they saw their countrymen being shot to death." - Catalogue of crime p88.

x

• !!!Entre Rios, Atenas and La Sabana appear to have been conquered by Rafael Tobar, Aquileo Torres, Cecilio Plata and co., afterwards one of the Larrangas led an expedition across land from the Igaraparana to the Caraparana River. Jose Gregorio Calderon and two of his brothers accompanied this expedition, and this group began a new campaign of conquest against the natives of the Caraparana. A house was constructed in a location that this document does not specify, and several Colombians migrated to this area to work with Larranaga and his group. This appears to have occurred in 1896. The Galvez steamship arrived shortly after. There was a conflict between the Larranga's and the Calderon's + Rafael Tobar, the latter wanted to evict Larranaga from the region. Calderon + Tobar apparently acquired some of the natives conquered by Larranaga, and a group of fifty armed men was rallied at El Encanto, led by an Aurelio Gasca. The band went to La Chorrera with the intention of expelling Larranaga, and taking his possessions. Arana arrived at La Chorrera on the steamship Putumayo and intervened in this conflict. Chirif document does not mention that Rafael Tobar, Cecilio Plata and Aquileo Torres were imprisoned on the Putumayo in July of 1901 before being sent to prison at Iquitos. Parliamentary Papers on Arana's examination: Arana claimed that he only travelled to the Putumayo three times. Once in December of 1901, Arana stated he was only at La Chorrera for a few hours. In 1903 he spent a few hours up to a few days at the stations of La Chorrera, El Encanto and Argelia. The next visit was in 1905, Arana went to El Encanto and claimed that the reason for this was to purchase Colombian properties. Apparently there was another conflict between the Larranagas and Calderons. "They were living in discord" - Arana Arana: "In order to obviate these disputes it was necessary to arrange to take over their interests consisting of rubber, etc., that they used to collect. These firms of Calderon and Larranaga and Perez were debtors to me in large sums of money." page 445 of Parliamentary papers, 8 April 1913 item 11738

• Filadelfia, owned by Cornelio Fosa, and David Serrano?

"organized by the Arana brothers in order to dispossess the Colombians, who were not only competitors, but offered refuge to the Indians, who were flying from the persecution of the company; and as long as these independent establishments existed on the Caraparana, Indians would fly there, and there was a means of exit from the region.47"

• Jesús Cabrera was the Colombian owner of Nueva Granada???

https://web.archive.org/web/20171007202324/http://amazonas.gov.co/territorios.shtml?apc=bbxx-2-&x=1364435 Apparently had a brother named Emilo Cabrera

Nueva Granada is a property to the south east of El Encanto. Hardenburg's manuscript (map, page 2) held by NLI confirms the name J. Cabrera on N. Granda's location.

• Campoamour - The estate of Oliverio Cabrera "at the head of the Miriti" river.

• Bernardo Carvajal (San Antonio), There is a San Antonio down the river from El Encanto on Hardenburg's manuscript page 2.

Fuentes 1908 states that the station of San Antonio was owned by Ordonez and Martinez, one of the last Colombian holdouts against Arana. San Antonio is south of Argelia, and north west of El Encanto on the Caraparana River. The words "Dorado Noicuenes Barros" appear below S. Antonio, this station may be "El Dorado" referred to in Hardenburg, and seized by Arana in early 1908.

• Colina Calderon?

• Calderons: Rafael Calderon, Jose Gregorio Calderon,

-Seems like the Calderon family owned La Florida too? Calderons referred to as one of the richest [entrepreneurs] in the Caqueta Juan Bautista Tama was a business partners of the Calderons

• La Sabana

• Abisinia

• Ultimo Retiro

• Providencia

• Barbara

• Gondar

• Nanai and Mina Carbon

• Pevas estate between Iquitos and Putumayo estates

-Is the Pevas estate Pensamiento?? Located near Napo River mouth. Macedo's map provided by Hardenburg does not display Pensamiento. Did the author of that map not know about Pensamiento, was it abandoned, or was it excluded from the map for any reason?

The Matanzas rubber station

"This system of slavery had two main features. The first was the practice of "correrias," such as can be studied in Sir Roger Casement's account of the early days of the Andokes section under Ramon Sanchez and Normand with the Barbadian labourers. The procedure was for "commissions" or patrols of whites (armed with the Company's rifles) to go out and collect Indians by force, shooting those who ran away, while the rest, in the words of one of the Company's documents were "reduced to obedience.' When so 'conquered' or 'reduced,' they were set to collect the wild rubber of the forest. Here the second feature of the forced labour comes in. Advances ("pagos") of European goods were made to them, and they were then regarded as debtors to the Company, and forced under pain of merciless flogging to work off these debts in rubber. Thenceforth, they were held under the chain of 'peonage,' a system of debt-bondage from which in fact they never got free."

— Select committee on Putumayo, Parliamentary Papers

Station described as a fortress by Seymour Bell.

The rubber station of Matanzas was founded in 1904 as a joint venture between Ramon Sanchez and Julio César Arana. Ramon Sanchez was a shareholder / partner in Arana, Vega y Compania. Sanchez's company was Ramon Sanchez and Company of Andoques. Normand was an employee of Larrañaga Arana & Compania originally. Sanchez was a Colombian.

In November of 1904 the first contingent of Barbadian employees, around 36 men, were sent from La Chorrera to the establish a new rubber station, which would become Matanzas. Armando Normand was contracted as an interpreter and attached to this contingent of workers.

Normand was implicated with abusing the Barbadian named Augustus Walcott either at the end of 1904 or the beginning of 1905. According to Walcott, "he was hung up by his arms tied behind his back for a very long time, and beaten with swords or machetes. He became unconscious and when let down was ill. Remained ill for a long time and had to be carried down in a hammock to Chorrera. Could not use his arms for two months." Walcott appears as statement number No.22 of the Blue Book, between the pages of 111-118.

David Cazes received complaints about the Barbadians working for Ramon Sanchez in the Putumayo, who was said to be "treating them in the most inhumane way." According to Arana, Cazes approached him on two or three separate occasions regarding these complaints. Arana stated "What the Barbadians complained about was that they were forced to walk a good deal ; that they had no comfort or proper food. Arana paid £700 to handle Sanchez's debt, before dismissing him from the region. According to Arana it was the administrators in the Putumayo who recommended Armando Normand to manage the Matanzas station, and installed him as such. In an "oath sworn" paper handed into the committee, he referred to the Sanchez affair multiple times. See p613. Arana includes the £700 transaction in a list of purchases to acquire rubber stations in the region.

According to Armando Normand, the Matanzas employees had heard that the local natives "were laying plans to attack the station in force."

I wish you would emphasize the point that the grudge the natives held against the white man, or blancos, the very old one - was that they were being dispossessed of land that was rightfully theirs... I often asked the Indians why they were conspiring against us and the answer invariably was that we were taking their lands away from them.

— Armando Normand, "A Criminals Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand", The National Magazine, An Illustrated Monthly Volume XXXVIII: April to September, 1913 (September 1913)

Normand further relayed that he sent out three native interpreters to figure out the current situation in the forest. These interpreters reportedly surprised a group of thirty five natives who were armed, and the interpreters managed to bring this group back to Matanzas. The Natives had recently held a war dance, and apparently the main feature was a tall pole that retained the mummified head of a white man.

Normand stated that the rebellious group was

"brought to camp in the stocks and gave two or three lashes to the more recalcitrant ones... During the two or three days we held the Indians prisoner, the other Indians in the forest sent them food which we unsuspectingly allowed the prisoners to eat. It turned out however, that the food had been poisoned by the Indians because they believed those held at Matanzas had deserted them. This is probably the origin of the stories told that I have poisoned many Indians. Eventually the rising came to nothing and conditions became normal again."

— Armando Normand, "A Criminals Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand", The National Magazine, An Illustrated Monthly Volume XXXVIII: April to September, 1913 (September 1913)

"I will not deny that I was often forced to place my Indians in the stocks - cepo - for short periods. What would you do with men who would not work, with men who steal and lie, with men who would murder you in cold blood if you gave them half a chance? I worked often all day long, in the pouring rains ; I suffered from chills and fevers and much sickness. I was never cruel to the natives. Considering the harsh conditions under which we lived I treated them as kindly as I possibly could."

— Armando Normand, "A Criminals Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand", The National Magazine, An Illustrated Monthly Volume XXXVIII: April to September, 1913 (September 1913)

-Evidence in Hardenburg 1912, AJRC 1997 and other contemporary sources refute "I was never cruel to the Natives." Leavine corroborates Genaro Caporo's report concerning the murder of three old natives and two young women who "were murdered in cold blood, and their bodies eaten by the dogs." Leavine also verifies another story by Caporo, relating to an indigenous women who was "cut to pieces by Normand himself because she refused to live with one of his employees, as he directed her to do.

Normand reported that in 1907 there "was a big fever which swept over the district, about fifty men dying in my section."

Thomas W. Whiffen stayed at Matanzas with Normand for five or six days. Apparently he had told Normand that his "station was the best of all those he had visited and that my men were in the best condition."

Normand relays information about a "small rebellion" in 1909, the one in which Buccelli and four others were killed. Buccelli was in charge of a sub-station located several miles away from Matanzas.

Normand denies Roger Casement's account of the 1910 fabrico march, stating that Casement's story was "all lies. The women carried only food for themselves and their husbands, they did not carry rubber."

Normand offered Westerman Levine £30 as a bribe to deceive Roger Casement.

Leavine charged Normand with the death of "over 500" natives. Leavine testified that at Matanzas he had witnessed the killing of 20 natives over the span of five days.

In Saldaña's words "all around the [Matanzas] house the largest number of skeletons of the hundreds of Indians who had been sacrificed by the ferocity of Normand."

The station was shutdown in 1910 under the administration of Juan A. Tizón, who believed that the in land stations of the company were a breeding ground for atrocities. <-- Refer to Casement, inland stations like Abisinia and Mzas.

"Tizon said that Matanzas was not merely wrong, but a 'financial folly.'" According to Tizon the station had been operating as a "dead loss for some time." The commissions for Normand and Macedo, as well as the expenditure for the station's necessities, including the salary for employees, ate up all of the station's potential profits. Apparently, at Matanzas, Normand had the largest staff in comparison to the company's other stations.

When Arana was interviewed before Parliament in 19(11?), regarding his dismissal of Sanchez he stated "I understood he was a man of bad moral character. He drank very much - he got drunk and induced others to gamble." Regarding Normand, Arana stated "To-day I am convinced that he did not act in the right. Normand was previously considered a straight man, but now I am convinced that many times he acted in his own interest. On other occasions he has also acted badly and abused his post."

Arana stated that he did not know Normand was received such a large commission (%20 of all rubber brought into Matanzas)

Q: "There were two other reasons why your company came to the ground, one of which you complained about in one of your letter. Seven employees were dismissed, including Normand?" Arana - A: "Yes" Q: "I understand that Normand had about £1,600 of his money in your company which he drew out? A: "Yes" Q: "The others drew out money?" A: "Yes" Q: "How much" A: "I was never able to trace the total amount, but it was a good sum." Q: "Some thousands?" A: "Some thousands." Q: "£10,000 or £20,000?" A: "I do not think it was £20,000 but I should think it would be £10,000"

^

1908 Incident with Colombia

^Occurred on the Caraparana River at the beginning of 1908.

• Peruvian-Colombian border conflict of 1908
• Peruvian-Colombian raids of 1908
• Caraparana raids of 1908
• 1908 raids on the Caraparana River

"After the 'Truth' disclosures the Manaos house sent back to the London Board a large parcel of documents, including the official reports of the Company's manager at El Encanto, Señor Loayza, as to the attacks on the Colombians on the River Caraparana, in January, 1908. It was stated in the covering letter that the document 'should in no case be shown to anyone, and was very appropriate for the secret archives of the Company.' This report shows that the attack was explained and largely justified on the ground that the Indians had been attracted away from the company - a fact which is admitted also in the Colombian official version of the incident which was shortly afterwards sent to the Company by the Foreign Office - and a 'commissison' or armed patrol had been sent to the River Caqueta to recover them." - Parliamentary Papers 1913 Volume 14 page XIV

V. Chairman to Mr. Thomson "11021. "That was after the La Union affair, was it not? - Yes. 11022. "A the murderers, including Loayza, were kept prisoners for more than two months, until the Prefect of Iquitos, a Senor Zapata, arrived, who receiving eight thousand pounds from the hands of Senor Julio Arana, set free the murderers, who all remained in the employ of the same house." That is the statement? - Yes. 11023. Does this man state it on his own authority? - He states it on his own authority; but I have another declaration confirming that statement. 11024. Was this man Cabrera present at the time? - He was in the Putumayo. 11025. Was he actually where the murderers were? - Yes, but whether he actually saw the payment of money I cannot say. 11026. Does it amount to more than saying it was a story circulated at the time? - He directly says, I think, that the money was paid. 11027. He does not say he had known it was paid? - No 11028. But he states on oath that it was paid? -Yes." Parliamentary Papers 1913 Volume 14 page 443 The Colombian deposition referred to is by Reuben Cabrera page 117 of Las Crueldades

"It is well understood that, Loayza, the agent at El Encanto, upon giving the alarm, merely carried out a cut-and-dried plan, for desirous of seconding the ambitions of their patrones to be the sole and exclusive owners and masters of all these vast selvas..."

• MAY HAVE BEEN INCENTIVIZED BY COLOMBIAN PORTAGE ROUTES TO NAPO RIVER : SERRANO ALONG WITH ORDONEZ Y MARTINEZ MANAGED A ROUTE THAT CONNECTED JOSA AND REMOLINO ON THE PUTUMAYO TO THE NAPO RIVER AND THEREFORE IQUITOS. THE PENSAMIENTO AFFAIR FOLLOWED THIS IN MAY OF 1908, THAT WAS THE SEIZURE OF ANOTHER PORTAGE ROUTE TO NAPO RIVER - ORIGINALLY OWNED BY COLOMBIANS

Varadero / portage route connected La Union with La Reserva.

-"I asked López if it were not possible to avoid passing through that region and cross over by some varadero[89] to the River Napo, as his partner had done. He replied that there were several varaderos we could take, the best one being near an establishment known as Remolino—some five-days journey down the river—which belonged to the Colombian company of Ordoñez and Martínez."

• Gabriel Martinez was established on the banks of the Yubineto river, along with around forty Colombian caucheros. Martinez had recently began engaging in contact with natives of the Sabuas nation and Martinez managed to get fifty of them to extract rubber for him. La Felpa's information claimed that Loayza sent a message to his companies office in Iquitos with a warning that a "large force of Colombians, well armed and uniformed and under the command of two generals, was coming down the Upper Caqueta, declaring that they were going to take possession of El Encanto and La Chorrera. He also added that this force, composed of some 300 or 400 men, was bringing a cannon." This information reached government officials in Iquitos, and 85 soldiers from the garrison of Iquitos was dispatched to the Putumayo under the command of Juan Pollack, Arce Benavides, Lieutenant Risco and other soldiers. Bartolome Zumaeta, on December 13 of 1907 embarked the Callao steamship with fourteen soldiers and travelled to the Yubineto river to capture Martinez. Zumaeta's group claimed that the natives that Martinez had contact with "belonged" to Arana's firm. Martinez and his men were then taken to El Encanto.

^ In response, Colombian comisario Orjuela went to La Union to meet with Loayza.

https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cuesti%C3%B3n_peruana/MT13AAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=benavides

• Last Colombian patrons on the Caraparana River by 1907 were Serrano, Gonzalez, as well as Ordoñez and Martinez.0
• Gabriel Martinez was Colombian inspector of the Putumayo police. <- Taken prisoner onboard the Callao, which had 11 Peruvian soldiers lted by Bartolome Zumaeta. Martinez and his men were imprisoned at El Encanto and were robbed

Liberal + Iquitos raid La Union, on the western bank of the Caraparana and murder Prieto. The dwellings were set on fire. Cattle, machinery, and whatever else that could be looted was sent to Iquitos.

• According to a pilot named Samuel Pisgara, men onboard the Liberal steamship began firing first, and Loayza was onboard the ship at the time.
• Jesus Orjuela, Colombian police inspector, was imprisoned at Argelia while awaiting Miguel S. Loayza's presence for a meeting.
• 27 killed at La Union
• According to Hardenburg, who was travelling along the Caraparana River near La Union, the firefight persisted for around thirty minutes. Hardenburg believed that some of the shots he heard were produced from the gatling gun on the Iquitos warship. After the firefight, there were five corpses and two wounded men on the ground, including colonel G. Prieto. Prieto and the other wounded man were executed, afterwards all of the corpses were looted.
• La Felpa information stated that the firefight between Arana's firm and Ordonez's group at La Union lasted around ten minutes.
• David Serrano and twenty eight other men killed at La Reserva on a separate attack.
• Hardenburg claimed that there were forty five indigenous families dedicated to the extraction of rubber at La Reserva, and in January of 1908 there was 170 arrobas of rubber awaiting exportation from the rubber station. There was also an abundant supply of Hevea trees in the area. - Serrano had been settled at La Reserva for several years by this point.

^Natives of the Yabuyana / Yabuyano nation were extracting rubber for Serrano, and they were enslaved by PAC after 1908.

• 7,000lb bribe against Zapata
• The Iquitos steamship had six machine guns, two canons, and eighty-five men onboard from the Iquitos garrison. Colombians appeared to have been offered 20,000 lb prior to their forceful eviction. An ultimatum was issued.

Source states machine guns were used, and a Peruvian garrison was stationed at La Union.

• "The true criminal is the government of Peru, far off, uncaring. Arana has been free to erect the individual acts of lawless squatters, Colombians and Peruvians, into a system of robbery under arms. The Government of Peru has stood by passive, ad when called on for help (as with David Serrano and Gonzalez) ready to kill too, and extend the frontier of Peru, and get more revenue-bearing territory. The two have gone hand-in-hand, Arana, the arch criminal and the administration of the Department of Loreto."
• Pensamiento affair occurred prior to attack on Serrano?

"[Victor] Israel states that many of the soldiers at Iqutios were brought from Cuzco and the Andes plateaux, overland and by Hullagaa to Urumaguas."

for mention of modus vivendi for mention of modus vivendi - it was the Colombian government that withdrew from the modus vivendi because of Peruvian advances into the disputed territory while the agreement was in place. The modus vivendi between Peru and Colombia ended in 1907.

One was of the Peruviana officers was a lieutenant named Ghiorzo. Another was Albarracin. See references to Captain Arce Benavides.

"The old Benavides of the Putumayo the prefect admits was 'a very bad man' - but the present conqueror of the Colombians is a decent fine chap & quite a different family. [Emphasis is my own] This is Colonel Oscar Benavides, the Putumayo ruffian who violated the poor woman as I described was Arce Benavides - his right name being Arce (the Paternal name) while he had after the manner of these strange people - taken his mother's name which was Benavides."

Benito Lores later became the captain of the Cosmopolita. This may be Ubaldo Lores,

Ghiorzo refused to take part in the attack against La Union and he was arrested because of that.

A detachment of Peruvian soldiers were sent to the Putumayo region with the intention of defending Peru's claim to the region. In response to the supposed threat of a Colombian invasion, the steamship Liberal and the Peruvian military gunboat named Iquitos were sent down river to the last three Colombian settlements.

!!!!!!FOR ADDITION ELSE WHERE, while visiting the cemetary at La Chorrera, VICTOR MACEDO mentions to R.C. that 80 out of around 120 soldiers died. They were deployed into the Putumayo due to the perceived threat of a Colombian invasion in 1907. A "wholly fictitious threat" according to Roger Casement. Quote from Roger Casement, make a block quote: "Here most of these poor chaps were buried with no cross or mark at all. A few have just a rough stick with the name, or date, rudely painted by some other soldier - but even these are broken or lying on the ground."

• At La Union, Prieto was said to have unfurled the Colombian flag in response to the Peruvian's demands, and this began the conflict. - According to Hardenburg's information. Colombians resisted for half a hour before they ran out of ammo and they dispersed into the jungle afterwards. There was around one thousand arrobas of rubber loaded onto the Liberal, and several Colombian woman were taken onboard as captives.
• Hardenburg wrote that while imprisoned on the Iquitos, he "witnessed the cowardly and brutal violation" of one of those women, who happened to be pregnant. She was dragged away to a place of privacy and raped by Captain Arce Benavides.

• The Colombian ministry of foreign affairs was informed that Serrano and his men were ambushed at Argelia by Peruvian soldiers.

"The next morning—Wednesday, the 15th—the Liberal left for Argelia, taking three officers and about seventy men, probably to defend that establishment against the attacks of those terrible fellows, the Colombians. One officer and the rest of the men, about thirty, remained at El Encanto to garrison it, while two more remained here to go to Iquitos upon the return of the Liberal, in order to spread the reports of the “victory” gained over the Colombians at La Unión."

On February 8 of 1908, La Felpa ran an articled titled "More about the Putumayo - sackings, arson, murder of wounded - violations of women by the Arana Coy - Loayza conceives, prepares and executes the assault - No penal Punishment."

"The dead were robbed of everything they had on them. These 'patriotic youths, whose only thought was to advance the flag of Peru one step more along the paths of conquest' (words of El Oriente) these jackals, we say, once masters of the field applied themselves to sacking."

Both Casement and Hardenburg believed that the excursion against the Colombians was carried out in order to increase the assets of the newly formed Peruvian Amazon Company.

See El Viaje de la Commission for comparison picture of an Andean Peruvian soldier and a Putumayo native side by side. Typically, the soldiers were Natives who were "impressed" from other regions. I believe Goodman mentions this, only use this context is you can source it.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Photograph_taken_for_comparison_between_a_Putumayo_native_and_an_indigenous_Peruvian_soldier_from_Cusco.jpg

COLLIER MENTIONS 11 TONS OF RUBBER LOOTED AT LA UNION.

See and On Zapata for reference to 27 Colombians killed at La Union

• Page describes PAC "commission" sent to Serrano's settlement. Serrano was tied to a tree, and then his wife was dragged out from out of their house, and raped in front of Serrano. Afterwards, the commission took Serrano's stock of merchandize, and loaded it onto the Liberal steamship along with Serrano's wife and child.

^Afterwards, Gabriel Martinez and his men were arrested on the banks of the Yubineto tributary.

• Ildefonso Gonzalez owned the "small post" of El Dorado, and according to Hardenburg's information Gonzalez had thirty indigenous families that were extracting rubber for him.

• A complaint filed by Antonio Ordonez to Colombian officials in the Department of Nariño stated that the assault on La Union happened on January 29

• Hardenburg: "Here I found the company had about two hundred Indian families employed, great herds of cattle, several large buildings and numerous chacaras of corn, yuca, plantains, etc. besides over one thousand arrobas of rubber already collected and stored under the principal house."

^ At La Union. See

• Hardenburg states he travelled along the varadero [portage route] between La Union to La Reserva.

• Miguel Flores shot and killed a Peruvian officer because he protested the massacre of La Reserva. - Find a corroborating source, Hardenburg's manuscript stated that Bartolome Zumaeta gave an order to execute Ricardo Cáceres, an ex-sergeant of the Peruvian army, because he protested the massacre of Serrano and his companions. Julio Montero provided the names of fifteen of the Colombians murdered at La Reserva, and stated that there were fourteen others who had been killed with this group.

"This commission was composed of some forty assassins of the 'civilizing company', among whom, besides Zumaeta and Flores, we find the following: Magno Trigoso, Belisario Castillo, Pedro Malaver, Vicente Diaz, Manuel Ponce, Francisco Celada, Juan Celada, Juan Diaz, Mariano Olaneta, Ricardo Caceras, one Maringosa, one Troncoso, and Pedro, a 'civilized' Huitoto. I could not ascertain the names of the other miserable murderers - author" - Hardenburg, or Montero? ^February of 1908

According to Montero, after Serrano and his companions were incarcerated by the group of Peruvians, the settlement of La Reserva was searched for loot, and "several sums of money" were found and "a quantity of jewels which were divided up between the two criminal chiefs of the commission." "A little later, the unhappy prisoners, who had already been robbed and were then in chains, were taken out of the house and not far off were shot to death and cut to pieces with machetes: this was a most horrible scene."

"All these men were put in chains and then murdered most barbarously, their corpses, horribly mutilated, being thrown into the river. Previous yo this operation, they had been obliged to reveal where they had put their money. Serrano's house and all it contained was burnt to the ground." - Carlos Muragaitio. Carlos stated that some of the massacred men were intending to travel to the Lower Caqueta to work for "Gomez & Arana Co., recently established there." Carlos stated that the group of prisoners from La Reserva, property of Serrano [and Antonio Ordonez] was taken to a station named Unisayes, the residence of Bartolome Zumaeta at the time, and the Colombians were tortured in the cepo prior to execution. Serrano was captured during the raid on La Reserva.

"Ildefonso Gonzalez, an intrepid Colombian labourer, had resided 18 years on the Caraparana and during this time had cleared up a small estate: as this man was one of the chiefs obstacles to the usurpation of the disputed territory, he was intimated to withdraw. Gonzalez obeyed and started to embark downstream in a canoe, but on the way recieved a discharge that felled him to the ground, mortally wounded, and still not content, the Peruvians finished him with a club and threw his body into the river. A wretch named Olaneta, a chief of section of the J.C. Arana and Hermanos Co., superintended this murder." Carlos Murgaitio's information published in Jornal de Comercio of Manaos.

"The unfortunate Serrano... had a civilized Indian woman, who was his wife, for he had been married to her ecclesiastically: by this woman he had two children, who are to-day in the possession of the monster, Miguel S. Loayza, the manager of El Encanto, accompanied by their mother, who is forcibly compelled to serve as the concubine of the fiendish Loayza."

• Arana's firm had previously attempted to buy out the owners of La Reserva and La Union, however these deals were refused.
• Source claims the attack on La Union occurred on the 12th of January 1908.

Potential names

On the forced migrations

Refer to Victor Macedo, Augusto Jimenez, Carlos Miranda, Abelardo Aguero and Miguel Flores taking natives to Acre. I believe Alfredo Montt also took natives with him

On Carlos Zapata, the Prefect

See Casement 1911 page 293 for Zapata's attitude before the bribe, and after.

Travelled to the Ucayali on BAP America in February of 1911.

"The then prefect, Carlos Zapata, was a friend of Senor Julio C. Arana and instead of investigating the charges he used his authority to conceal the [Pensamiento] scandal and even caused, so it is asserted some of the malefactors arrested by the Peruvian military officers on the Putumayo, to be released.

Peruvian soldiers were involved in the Pensamiento affair.

"Zapata the then Prefect I knew had been bribed to release the criminals the Peruvian military auths. had arrested - but I did not know the sum given him until now. It was £7,000."

"The proof that these charges were true was again and again established to my satisfaction on the spot, and finally admitted by Senor Tizon, whose excuse for the apathy of the Prefect Zapata was that the land was a 'no mans land' belonging neither to Colombia nor Peru - and that he could not intervene. Senor Zapata, nevertheless, accompanied Senor Arana in 1908 to this region, and released some of the men his own officers had arrested."

^Spring of 1908

"similar to the former incident where Julio C. Arana himself bribed the former Prefect, Carlos Zapata, to abstain from arresting the murderers of Serrano, Gonzalez, and the other Colombians on the Caraparaná."

"He [Remigio Vascones] was actually on the Cosmopolita when that vessel coneyed the then Prefect, Carlos Zapata, in the spring of 1908 to the Putumayo. This was after the atrocious murder of the twenty-seven Colombian settlers at La Union and other points on the Caraparana by the agents of the Peruvian Amazon Company headed by Bartolome Zumaeta, the brother of Pablo, early in 1908... The military officer in command of the Putumayo at the time was a Commandant Pollack. This officer learning of the murders of the Colombians sent a force to arrest the criminals, who, with the exception of Bartolome Zumaeta, who escaped to the Abisinia distrit, were brought in irons to La Chorrera and kept guarded there to await the prefect's arrival."

Miguel Flores was one of those arrested. See

^Arana brought Rey de Castro with him on the journey. "The prefect came as the guest of Senor Julio Arana... This journey of Senor Arana in company with these two Peruvian officers of high rank is really the key to the whole subsequent situation. Both these officials were bought by Senor Arana. The proof of Senor de Castro's purchase is in the books of the Peruvian Amazon Company at Manaos...

^The "two Peruvian officers" seems to refer to Rey de Castro and Zapata. Commander Pollack was also on the vessel. Pollack was the commander in chief of Peruvian forces in the Putumayo at the time, and he pursued the incarceration of several participants incriminated in the 1908 attacks against Colombians. He also "organized an information summary and succeeded in recovering some of the money and jewelry stolen from the victims as well as certain documents ordering these murders. Unfortunately these wise measures of this worthy Peruvian military were doomed to failure, for when the Chief* of the department of Loreto went to the River Putumayo, accompanied by the feudal Julio C. Arana, this said first authority ordered the liberation of the criminals, whom Commandant Polack had so wisely arrested." - Julio Montero.

"The proof of Senor Zapata's venality is not so easily furnished, but there is no doubt in any of my informants minds that he was bribed, and bribed by Senor Arana, on this journey. The sum is said to have been £7000."

Pensamiento affair

Amadeo Burga was the commissario for the Napo River and an employee of Julio Cesar Arana at the same time.

Burga travelled to the Pensamiento estate, also known as triunfo onboard a warship named Reqeuna, which had Peruvian soldiers on board.

Further notes on O'Donnell

Macedo travelled on the Liberal with O'Donnell and the Commercial Commission in Feburary of 1911, away from the Putumayo. O'Donnell was owed around £2,000

"I am told it is not the case that O'Donnell has no money. He had enough to want to buy a house here for £1,000 - and he pledged some hundreds down. Apparently he must have got some of his money from the company but not, perhaps, all.

" As regards O'donnell he tells me that he will leave for Manaos this month to try and recover from Lizardo Arana the money the Company has not paid him. It appears that O'Donnell, when he left in Feburary, gave 680 to Lizardo Arana and git a bill in exchange for it, This has been protested, the Company refusing or being unable to meet it in London. O'Donnell wishes to settle down in Barbados along with a man named Hessé. They bought (for £1,000) a house there intending to turn it into a hotel & paid £400 down, but have not completed the purchase money owing to this breach of faith by Lizardo Arana.

On Victor Macedo

"These Indians, twenty-five in number, after being cut to pieces, were burnt at La Chorrera by the whites, headed by Victor Macedo, Rafael Larrañage and Jacobo Barchillón... Macedo did not like being a prisoenr, he escaped and slipped up the river Napo to La Chorrera... those who remained continued the question until... they hushed things up with half a million soles, silencing in this way..." Casement's note declares half a million soles equaled £50,000. Source states that these Ocaina natives belonged to the Gacudo and Pinaje tribes.

Mention of census conducted under Macedo's orders with the aid of Maneul Torrico.

• Juan Castanos (Saldana deponent and Porvenir chief) wanted passage to Iquitos however Macedo opposed this because Castanos did not have enough money to pay for the passage on the Liberal. Castanos later obtained the funding to do so, however Zubiaur, captain of the Liberal, refused to have him on the ship. Afterwards, his wife was dragged away and Macedo allowed her to be taken as a concubine by Bartolomé Zumaeta.

did not allow him to because Castanos couldn't afford it

Macedo travelled on the Liberal with O'Donnell and the Commercial Commission in Feburary of 1911, away from the Putumayo.

At the end of a list titled "Names of the worst criminals on the Putumayo when I was there," Casement annoated: "All the above were chiefs of section ie. principal agents in full authority over a certain district acting under the general supervision of Victor Macedo -- the principal agent at La Chorrera."

Macedo's arrest warrant was issued along with 236 other employees of the Peruvian Amazon Company in 1911. Judge Valcarcel issued these warrants. <-- The page also mentions the first warrants were issued for the flaying and massacre of thirty Ocaina natives.

"According to the evidence taken in the enquiry it would seem that the fire massacre ('hecatombe') in La Chorrera gave rise to these chiefs. The execution of thirty Ocainas Indians, tortured and burned alive, was thus a sort of patent, a diploma for governing sanctions."

^Dr. Paredes's own words.

-^"Casement footnote" "This crime was committed by Victor Macedo's direction, and on the strength of this act of fortitude he became eventually the chief of all sections as general manager at La Chorrera, deriving from his presidency of crime an income of well over 3,000/ a year."

Source stated Macedo was in Lima in October-September of 1911.

"It is reported that Macedo who was under arrest at Lima, is on his way to Iquitos to submit to the investigation of the local court on the charges brought against him by Dr. Paredes." | "A footnote appears here as follows : 'Later information in 51234. He is said o be at Manaos in Brazil. It is stated in 48513 that he did not go to Lima."

"He held that post for years, and it was while he was in full control of the La Chorrera agency that is was the scene for the awful crimes denounced by Mr. Hardenburg. Dr. Paredes became convinced not only that those crimes were committed with Senor Macedo's knowledge, but that he himself had personally committed crimes against the Indians. Macedo had left the Putumayo before the date of Dr. Parede's arrival there, and had gone to Lima in receipt of a considerable sum.... Macedo went to Lima, believing himself safe... I now learn (on the Javary) that Dr. Paredes received two telegrams from Lima urging him to do his utmost to get the warrant against Macedo withdrawn. One of these telegrams was from the prefect at Callao, the other from the alcalde of Lima. Dr. Paredes refused to be bound by such request, and the warrant against Macedo has not yet shared the fate of that against Zumaeta."

^See for "influential friends"

Casement was told that Macedo was previously Lima, under arrest and on the way to Iquitos. However, he was later informed Macedo was "actually in Barbados, entirely free, and will doubtless stay there until he learns the result of the Zumaeta 'trial.'"

Macedo was said to be at Manaus in December of 1911, "along with Arana"

HERE IS THE CLARIFICATION

"Victor Macedo was at Lima, and instead of being arrested was permitted to leave the country, to travel via Barbados to Manaos where he was in company with J.C. Arana until a few days of my arrival there from Iquitos on 11th instant. He is said to have now gone up to the Acre territory along with the atrocious murderer Armando Normand who was said to have gone to Argentina. My informant in Manaos declares that he saw Macedo and Normand togehter and that he is assured they left the town together ostensibly for the Acre district. He adds that several others of the accused men, some of them very evil reputation were with Macedo and Normand and he thinks all may be bound in reality, for the Putumayo."

"Dr. Paredes states that he made very effort to cacpture some of the worst criminals, but points out that these had been furnished with every means to get away by the chief agent, Victor Macedo, before his arrival."

EDITORS OPINION

-not Angus Mitchell, the editor

There appears to have been a meeting in Manaos, December 1911 between Arana and the "worst criminals." This may have been to arrange financial matters, and possibly further employment with Arana.

Earlier in the 1911 book, it was said that Arana had around 300,000 pounds of debt outstanding to him.

There are sources which state Arana had business in the Acre River, including the 1911 book. Macedo, Augusto Jimenez, Abelardo Aguero, and possibly Normand may have been offered work in the Upper Amazon by Arana, away from the Putumayo. Aguero had a large out standing debt, and I can not find sources on how much money Jimenez left the Putumayo with.

!!!! "He declares that he is aware of an offer that was actually made to Aguero, amounting to over 2000 by a firm in Manaos who wished to send the Indians as rubber collectors into the Acre territory." "This offer, he unstands, Aguero declined, and he believes the Indians were taken by that individual up the river Pururs, whither he and his companions are said to have gone..."

On Alfredo Montt

"He says that Fonseca and Montt, two of the worst of the criminasl, are up the Javari river which forms the frontier between Peru & Brazil. They are at a place called Santa Theresa some 40 miles up the Javari from its mouth, on the Brazilian side. They have got ten stolen Boras Indians with them, they brought in a canoe in May Last. They are now, employed (with these poor Indian slaves) by contract to get rubber for a Brazilian firm at Santa Theresa called Edwards & Serra.

^ See page

On the 60,000 Zumaeta Mortage

"THE CHAIRMAN: - Mr J.C. Arana was working for many years the Amazon district. He worked up a large business, and his capital was just under 80,000. He then took into partnership three of his clerks, one of them being his brother, the other two his brother-in0law and his wife's brother-in-law. Making the partnership with these gentleman he divded his capital into two parts; he left 39,000 odd in the firm of J.C. Arana & Brothers, which was the new firm, and he seperated 40,000, of which he was to have the free disposal, and that sum of 40,000 he handed over to his wife and the younger children. This sum, of 40,00 was to remain in the deposit at the rate of 6% per annum. That sum remained in deposited for some years, neither capital nor interest being paid, so that the capital was aacccumulating at compound interest, and that sum amounts today to 60,000. It has been accumulating since 1903. Interest has now been paid on this sum for about a year and a half."

On Jose Innocente Fonseca

https://catalogue.nli.ie/Record/vtls000722524

See pages 74-81, statement of Juan Castanos to Saldana in 1907. Castanos was the chief of Porvenir, and was under Fonseca's command. absence of Stanley Lewis mentioned?? | Lewis corroborates Castanos statement.

"Of Jose Inocente Fonseca, who also spent some days at Chorrea during this period, I learned of graver crimes than this - deeds committed to allow him to possess himself of the wives of Indians whom he coveted. As a rule, the criminals who controlled the Indian population of the Putumayo were chary of robbing and Indian husband of his wife. The harems were maintained mainly by orphans, generally girls whose parents were 'dead/' Asking once why it was that the wives of the Indians usually seemed to be spared this contamination, a reliable witness answered me: 'Because, Sir, if they taken an Indian's wife, that Indian don't work rubber.' I urged, that since these men stuck at no act of terrorisation to make Indians work rubber, a husband could be forced, even if robbed of his wife, to go and get rubber. 'No, Sir,' my infromant said 'the Indians love their wives, and if shse is taken they won't work rubber.. They can kill them, do anything they like to them, but the Indian won't work rubber.' This assertion was made more than once by men, who, like this man, had taken an active part in making Indians work rubber, and I believe that this obstinate prejudice of the Indian preserved a native marriage from invasion more surely than any respect the 'cauchero' has for its sanctity. An Indian marriage is not a ceremony, but a choice sanctioned by the parents of the bride, and once a child or children result from the union there is rarely infidelity or seperation. The very conditions of Indian life, open and above board, and every act of every day known to well nigh every neighbour, precluded, I should say, very widespread sexual immorality before the coming of the white man... My interpreter, Bishop, related of Fonseca the following incident, declaring that he knew the circumstances well, and I have no reason to doubt the accuracy of his statement. Bishop declared that once at Atenas station, when Fonseca was in charge there, he had coveted the wife of an Indian, and at length had annexed her. The husband protesting, Fonseca had promised to restore the woman if the Indian brought in a certain quantity of rubber. This the man did; whereupon Fonseca, instead of restoring the wife, gave to the husband a girl, one of his concubines, saying that she must serve instead. The Indian refused to be contended, refused to work rubber, and then was disposed of by Fonseca's 'muchachos' and the wife of the murdered man, as well as the substitute given in her place, remained in the household of Fonoseca, where my informant saw them frequently after the husband had disappeared.

"The man in charge told me if I do not shoot the Indian he would put me in the stocks and break my ribs or something. He take a big stick and hold it and shake it at me. The Indian was chained up and in the stocks at the time. I was frightened for my own life, and I did shoot the Indian. -Who was the white man...? -Fonseca, In Ultimo Retiro" 1906 "Fonseca take the Indian's wife. He had the man there in chains and he take his wife, and he made me kill him for that. The Indian had done no wrong at all. The Indian's name was Cherichema. The woman is there now-with Fonseca in Sabana: she has borne him two children, one died. and now another - she is there with him now."

Fonseca had an uncle working in the Putumayo region in 1910, during Casement's return to Iquitos. This may be Ildefonso Fonseca. Fuentes 1908 states that Manuel Chuquipiondo and Ildefonso Fonseca were established on the Pupana and Yaguas River. One account of the 1903 massacre of Ocaina natives at La Chorrera implicates Ildefonso Fonseca as a perpetrator of said incident. Deponent appears to be Pablo Andoques Does the witness confuse Ildefonso F. with Jose Inocente Fonseca? See AJRC p420, a Fonseca was killed, the uncle of J.I. Fonseca, which again, may have been Ildefonso Fonseca. Investigate Ildefonso's relationship with Arana, it appears this was not a PAC station, and a partnership, perhaps it was only a trade relationship. Casement states that Fonseca's business on the Yaguas was sold by his widow to a Portugese man with the name of Azambriga.

On Zubiaur

See statement of P. Elsner, crippled and beat by Zubiaur in September of 1907.

On Miguel Flores

Employed at Abisinia in 1910-January of 1911

"The following is a list of thoes who are stated to be the worst criminals:..." Miguel Flores included.

Casement saw Flores at La Chorrera with seven Boras men from Abisinia, five of those men had scars from flagellation.

^The first "'wild Indians'" Casement "actually saw"

On 13 April news reached Iquitos that Judge Paredes, sent by the Lima government to investigate the atrocities, had indicted Fonseca, Aguero & Flores. They all fled to Manaos on rafts taking with them dozens of Huitoto Indians of both sexes, whom they intended to sell on the River Acre for lb/50 each.

"I have ordered Paredes to accelerate proceedings so as to issue writs against above and will endeavour to obtain their extradition from Brazil, as well as return to their own home of enslaved Huitotos. Paredes said he would, the object of taking away these Indians being to prevent them from giving evidence as to crimes - Huitotos villages destroyed."

Among other atrocious things that Dr Paredes states to me are repeated acts of cannibalism not arising from the desire of the Indians, but forced on them by Aguero, Fonseca, Flores and others of the white employees. He declares that these men ordered Indians that they had murdered to be cut up and cooked and ordered some of the criminals muchachos they had brought up to be their bodyguards to eat them and this was done. He even relates how, in more than one case, the genital organs of men were cut off, cooked and prisoners forced to eat this, the only food given them. On one occasion Miguel Flores murdered eighteen little children who were captured in an Indian house he and his bandits had surprised. The parents fled at the alarm, but the children had not time to follow them and Flores ordered the children to be dashed against the trees. The parents were still in sight, having halted on a hilltop and the cries if the children were heard by their mothers who ran back to save them, only to meet death tooo as they clasped thte mingled limbs of their off-spring, This is only one of the many crimes related to me this morning by Dr Paredes or Senor Escurra, in some cases the details are too revolting to be set down even in confidential despatch.

^ Casement

On Abelardo Aguero

"I learn that Abelardo Aguero and Armando Blondel two of the Putumayo murderes were in Manaos not long ago. A Barbados blackman, now in my service here, saw them both there in May staying at a hotel. Aguero was the chief of Abisinia section, and if possible was the most infamous of the gang of murderers there. Blondel was his second - and a dirty cut-throat too. Aguero literally murdered many hundred of Indians in Abisinia section - by burning alive, starving to death, decapitating and flogging to death also by mutilating. He is still in Brazil & I believe up the Purus." November 11, 1911.

"Aguero himself, despite his commission on results of 5 soles per arroba* of all the rubber from the Abisinia district, was in debt to the company 470L. at the date of our visit to La Chorrera. It had been 530L on the 31st December, 1909. So with many others. Their exploitation of their districts was being conducted at a loss to the company - a loss that in some sections ran into thousands of pounds. I was informed, that they themselves figured as being always in debt to the company as far back as the accounts produced were carried."

Arroba footnote, one arroba is equal to 15 kg which is equal to around 32 lb of rubber.

"Little or no regard to decent existed where lust ompelled. At the 'fabrico' gathering at the beginning of November 1910, the chiefs of several sections came to Chorrera with their usual train of dependent concubines and 'muchachos' during the stay there of the company's commission and myself. Among others, Aguero arrived from Abisinia with several of his subordinates on the 1st November. He and they left again in a small steam launch of the company the Huitoto in the evening of the 2nd November. The vessel started about 8 p.m., and I heard crying not long before the vessel left the bank only some 20 yards away. In the morning two of the Barbados men who had been seeing three of their country-men off the Huitoto informed me of the cause of the crying. Aguero had taken fancy to one of the humble Indian women workers of La Chorrera - a woman, indeed, who daily swept out the dining room and the verandah past the door of the rooms where the commissioners and myself resided. We had often noticed her at this task, and had been struck by her gentle, pensive face. I was told her Indian husband was dead, and so she was gathered into the La Chorrera household to help make pantaloons and otherwise serve (not in an immoral capacity) the needs of that large station. The caprice of Aguero, who already had a harem of eleven women at Abisinia, was, however, gratified, and this poor being, against her entreaties and in open tears, had been forced on board the company's steamer to add to the numbers of those degraded by the favours of this highest agent..."

"Aguero and Normand and most of their gang of murderers have gone off into the wilds of the Caqueta. Mr Barnes writes me that Aguero burned and destroyed everything he could before leaving in hope of stirring up the Boras Indians against Tizon & the commissioners of the Company. This as a parting legacy of crime. He has taken his muchachos with him & of course all the armaments of guns, ammunition &c.. What a situation! and this one of the principal agents of a London Company!"

On Aurelio Rodriguez

Citation for %50 commission:

Citation for Santa Catalina and La Sabana being located in "Boras country"

Citation for Paredes commission discovering a "burning pit" at Santa Catalina "where many bodies of murdered Indians had been burned." This commission discovered another pit nearby that also contained human remains. -Paredes stated that the burn pit was around one hundred meters from the main house at Santa Catalina and many charred bones were found there. According to Paredes a section of the burn pit had been cleared and this area had a hut built above it.

Paredes's judicial commission travelled from Santa Catalina to Abisinia, regarding this area Paredes wrote: "This station and the preceding one (Santa Catalina) were the chief centres of the bloody raids against the Boras tribe, from which it may be gathered how many slaughters took place. These hunting of the Indians ('correrias'), which should also be called these infamous expeditions ('comisiones'), which set out to spread terror and death among these unhappy savages had no other object save destruction."

Paredes emphasized that one of the principal causes of crime in the region was based in the fact that Arana's managers were paid a percentage of the value for the rubber their stations delivered. To support this claim Paredes cited the contract between Arístides Rodriguez and J.C. Arana. Casement wrote that "[p]aying this man [Arístides] 50 per cent. of all he could get out of the native inhabitants of the region was putting a premium upon wholesale crime and spoilation."

Rodriguez had a bail of £2,000 which was guaranteed by Pablo Zumaeta. - Letter from David Cazes to Roger Casement dated 14 April 1911

Las cuestiones del Putumayo: memorial by P. Zumaeta, page 11 claims that Aristides left the company's service on July 23, 1909 and Aurelio left on June 2 of 1909. They both travelled to Europe in October 1909 "as recorded in the passenger lists archived in the captaincy of this port, with only Aurelio Rodriguez returning to Iquitos, since Aristides died in Europe. Since his arrival, Aurelio dedicated himself to making trips on the small boat he acquired in Europe, called Shishaquita", and when the commission left he was in the city, operating his already named boat..." - Zumaeta admits to provided a 2,000 pound bail to secure the release of Rodriguez. Zumaeta stated that he was under the persuasion that Aurelio had not "committed the crimes of which he was accused."

• Abel Alarco told Romulo Paredes that in 1910, Aurelio and Aristides travelled to Paris. Alarco stated that they were "attracted minaly by the desire to know the Apaches of that city...

"the Rodriguez brothers, who, imitating our Inca, formed long caravans of savages, who bore them on their backs from place to place." - Romulo Paredes when he became sick around Santa Catalina in 1911.

blockquote?: "made, by Rodriguez's direction, a special 'cepo' or stocks, for the confinement, or torture rather, of the recalcitrant india-rubber workers. Not satisfied with the ordinary stocks to detain an individual by the legs alone, Rodriguez had designed a double 'cepo' in two parts, so formed as to hold the neck and arms at one end and to confine the ankles at the other. These stocks were so constructed that the leg end could be moved up or down, so that they might fit an individual of any size. For a full-grown man they could be extended to the length of his figure, or contracted to fit the stature of quite a child. Small boys were often inserted into this receptacle face downward, and they, as well as grown up people, women equally with men, were flogged while extended in this posture." Roger Casement on the double cepo constructed by E. Crichlow for Aurelio Rodriguez. This device was employed at Santa Catalina until "the summer of 1909." page is summarized information in a smaller quote

Crichlow claimed that during a small quarrel "of no importance" between himself and a white agent of the Peruvian Amazon Company, Rodriguez took the latter's side and struck Crichlow on his head with a revolver. Crichlow was beaten by Rodriguez's subordinates and then imprisoned the cepo until the following day. He was transported to La Sabana with a chain around his neck and an armed guard. La Sabana was managed by Fidel Velarde at the time, Velarde had Crichlow emplaced at that stations cepo, he was released the cepo the next day and sent to La Chorrera for further imprisonment. Evelyn Batson corroborated Crichlow's testimony regarding his physical abuse at Santa Catalina.

Evelyn Batson was employed on correrias with Aurelio Rodriguez. See Preston Johnson was employed at Santa Catalina for 18 months, during which he oversaw the transportation of rubber and he was also employed on correrias near the station. Johnson was later transferred to La Sabana, he was employed there until 1910 with the same tasks as the former station. Clifford Quintin was sent to Santa Catalina around February of 1907, he was employed "on commissions and hunting Indians" as well as flogging natives while under Aurelio's management. Quintin stated that Aurelio left the Santa Catlina around June of 1909 and he travelled to Iquitos.

When Casement asked Johnson rather or not he knew of natives dying from starvation, Johnson's reply was "in Sabana plenty have so died in the time of Arístides Rodríguez, the brother of Aurelio Rodríguez, but that he does not know if they so died in Santa Catalina." "The Indians, he declares, were killed for not working rubber - for running away in order to escape from this work. Some may like to work rubber, but others do not, and these latter are not asked if they like to work rubber, but are chased and killed." Preston claimed that the entrapped natives were mostly killed by the muchachos de confianza and he only saw one instance of a white agent murdering a native. Preston never witnessed Aurelio kill a native person during his employment at La Sabana however "very many were killed by his orders and their heads were cut off by his orders." These orders were carried out by the muchachos de confianza and affected men, women as well as children.

Quintin claimed that "very many Indians were killed there both by [Aurelio] Rodriguez himself and by his 'muchachos'"

John Brown was sent from Abisinia to Santa Catalina on numerous occasions in order to aid Aurelio Rodriguez's correrias, which were frequently organized according to Brown. Brown testified that he "frequently saw Aurelio Rodriguez and his conduct to the Indians was the same as [Abelardo] Agüero's." Brown reported that on one occasion, Aurelio resided at an indigenous house for ten days and expeditions to hunt down natives were sent into the surrounding forest daily. Rodriguez ordered for the natives that he did not desire to take for his workforce to be decapitated.

"The murdering of the natives between Santa Catalina and Abisinia by orders of Agüero and Rodriguez went on all the time of his [Brown's] stay in the region."

Brown stated that Santa Catalina and Abisinia would aid each other and exchange agents when extra manpower was desired, that these two stations were separated by a distance that could take two days to traverse.

• Frederick Bishop told Roger Casement that Arístides was paid 7,000 Peruvian soles by Fidel Velarde for the rights to manage La Sabana. According to Bishop, Fidel was encouraged by the fact that La Sabana had delivered 30,000 kilos of rubber to La Chorrera in a single fabrico and Fidel was under the impression that he would have similar success at La Sabana.

El Proceso

Aristides left La Sabana on 23 July 1909 and he was replaced as the station's manager by Jose Inocente Fonseca.

• ! Deponents at La Sabana: the agents Adolfo Cortez, Miguel Montoya, Jose Burbano, Rafael Ocana, Froilan Patino, Glorioso Rodriguez, Rosendo Lopez and Alejandro Rivas and twelve indigenous people.

• Adolfo Cortez claimed that Aristides ordered four of his muchachos de confianza to murder two natives named Ayeye and Ocaca because they attempted to flee La Sabana. These two natives were shot to death and Cortez estimated that during his employment at La Sabana two hundred natives were flogged by Aristides or his subordinates.

• Burbano testified to crime at La Sabana under the management of Fidel Velarde and Jose Inocente Fonseca. Burbano also reported that he heard other employees of La Sabana as well as Santa Catalina talk about a massacre of more than one hundred Boras natives that were surprised while dancing.

• Rafael Ocaña actually testifies to crime at Santa Catalina, perpetrated by Aurelio and his subordinates. Ocaña stated that he witnessed Aurelio murder three natives at Santa Catalina because they didn't come to the station with rubber and Ocaña testified that he knew where their burned corpses were located. Ocaña claimed that he witnessed around thirty-five natives perish from the effects of flagellation and starvation while imprisoned in the cepo, these natives were apparently whipped by Augustus Walcott and another Barbadian. Ocaña is one of the deponents that testified to the killing of Carlota, Alejandro Vasquez's indigenous concubine. Ocaña describes her murder in his testimony, he claimed that Aurelio gave a carbine to a muchacho and then told this muchacho to shoot Carlota because she had physical relations with an indigenous man.

• Froilan Patino claimed that he witnessed Aurelio flay thirty imprisoned natives with a whip, afterwards Aurelio ordered his subordinates to behead those thirty natives. The corpses of these thirty natives were cremated in the nearby burning pit. Patino stated that he saw the burning corpses of fifty natives at that pit, natives which were murdered by Aurelio and his subordinates. On a different occasion, Patino witnessed Aurelio shoot and wound two natives with a revolver, Aurelio ordered his muchachos to behead those two injured natives. The reason provided by Patino for these murders was that the two victims did not deliver rubber to the station. Patino claimed Aurelio shot another indigenous man in the head with his carbine at Santa Catalina because the indigenous man attempted to flee. Patino described the murder of an indigenous child by Aurelio, this girl had fled Santa Catalina after she was flogged. When Aurelio caught her, she was thrown from the roof of a house onto the ground and afterwards Aurelio beat her to death, this killing was protested by Lucinda Torrejon. The deponent Adolfo Lopez corroborated these last two murders that were reported by Patino.

Patino stated that after two days of travel while on a correria with the Rodriguez brothers, Fidel Velarde, Miguel Flores and Aguero this group encountered several natives. Two children were grabbed and smashed against a tree trunk, which killed them, an elderly woman was also murdered by this group. One of these corpses was given to two muchachos from the Muinane and Nonuya nations and they were given orders by the leaders of this expedition to consume the corpse. Patino stated that this expedition captured five indigenous women, these women were given to muchachos of the Nonuya tribe and the previously mentioned managers ordered those captives to be cannibalized, an order which was carried out.

Paredes emphasized that one of the primary accusations levied against the Putumayo's indigenous people was that they were cannibals. Paredes absolutely refuted these allegations, he wrote that "[t]he only case of cannibalism I became acquainted with during my mission in the Putumayo, was that ordered by the civilized themselves." Paredes noted that if there were truly instances of indigenous people willingly cannibalizing foreign settlers in the Putumayo then he would have been informed about it since he "made an effort to prove cases of cannibalism". With the exception of the cases instigated by Aurelio and Abelardo Aguero, none of the people questioned by Paredes in the region could confirm a single case of cannibalism.

See bottom of 219 and 225, Patino provides an eyewitness account for the correria led by the Rodriguez brothers, Fidel Velarde, Miguel Flores, Abelardo Aguero and Augusto Jimenez. According to Lopez, this correria lasted twenty days, using machetes and firearms the expedition killed almost every indigenous person they came across. The group travelled to an indigenous maloca that was preparing to host a dance, the maloca was surrounded and ambushed. Lopez claimed he was informed by members of that correria that there were three hundred indigenous people killed by this group.

Lopez accompanied Aurelio on a separate correria and he stated that "Aurelio Rodriguez had the habit of cutting off the heads of the Indians even before they had finished dying."

See top part of only bottom has been examined for corroboration of Patino's statement.

Lopez and Ocaña both testified to the killing of Carlota, Aurelio originally ordered Lopez to execute Carlota however a muchacho de confianza executed this order in stead since Lopez refused to do so.

• ! Deponents at Santa Catalina: the agents Adolfo Lopez, Francisco Borbor, Juan Manuel Lopez, Carlos Seminario and five indigenous people.

• Judge Paredes emphasized that evidence regarding the massacres and murders of indigenous peoples perpetrated under the Rodríguez brother's management did not only come from the examination of depositions and letters but also from material evidence examined at their stations. This included the identification by empirical experts of more than one hundred human skulls, located at the site of a correria led by the Rodríguez brothers.

• Statement of Daniel Albán: Albán was employed at Santa Catalina and during his time he witnessed three indigenous people murdered by three different agents of the station under Aurelio's orders. Aurelio personally flogged indigenous people at his station and ordered his subordinates to do so as well. Albán claimed that on one occasion he saw sixty indigenous women who were flogged at the station, some of whom had blood dripping down their backs. Albán stated that this was either because they did not bring in the amount of rubber desired by Aurelio or he was not satisfied with the quality of rubber delivered. According to Albán, Aurelio was the most demanding manager in regards to the imposition of rubber quotas and Albán witnessed the flagellation of around fifteen indigenous children by Aurelio and his subordinates. Albán also implicated Aurelio in the death of eight indigenous captains who perished in his stations cepo while suffering from flagellation wounds and hunger. The rubber quotas as well as punishments imposed by Aurelio affected indigenous people from the ages of five years old and up. Albán also testified that he witnessed Arístides personally flog more than twenty indigenous people at La Sabana.

• Carlos Seminario wrote to Paredes that there were 190 indigenous people that were scarred from flagellation, Seminario stated that Aurelio was responsible for these scars.

• Alejandro Vasquez Torres(!!!!!): Vasquez Torres estimated that during his employment at Santa Catalina he witnessed the flagellation of two hundred indigenous people, which was carried out by Aurelio, his subordinate agent and his muchachos de confianza. ... cont.

Bartolome Zumaeta

"While thus himself a prisoner, his [Katenere] wife, so I was informed by a Peruvian white man holding a well-paid post in the company's service, had been publicly violated before his eyes by one of the highest agents of the Syndicate, a Peruvian whose name and record was frequently brought forward in the course of my enquiry. This man had been obliged to fly from the Caraparana agency on account of his crimes in that region in 1908. He had there murdered several Colombian 'caucheros' and violated their wives - white women - and his crimes were so notorious that the Peruvian military authorities, in some force there at the time, had, it was said, been ordered to arrest him."

Examination of Gielgud during Parliamentary commission: "3603: Zumaeta was at Iquitos the chief manager of the company? - Yes. 3604:You now know him to be a murderer? - Well, I regard him as being largely responsible for the state of things that obtained there. 3605. "There was present at this massacre (where 14 men were killed) 'the Peruvian ex-sergeant, Ricardo Caeceres, who courageously protested against the perpetration of this crime. This protest was promptly met by Zumaeta, the agent of the company, giving orders for Caeceres to be murdered, an order which was immediately carried out." In reference to your association and meeting with this Zumaeta you dropped the word 'Serrano'. You heard, of course, that 32 tons of rubber that belonged to Serrano got into the company's stores? - Yes, I heard it subsequently to my first visit. 3606. They murdered him and robbed him, and you heard about it..." Page 141 of Parliamentary Papers 1913 Volume 14

"he merely transferred his residence from one part of the company's territory to another, and he openly boasted of the killing of the Colombians in his new quarters."

• Gave a revolver to Frederick Bishop, stating it was taken from a Colombian.
• Zumaeta was at Ultimo Retiro at the beginning of 1908 and afterwards he went to Abisinia, where Aguero and Jimenez were in charge.

Killed by Katenere around May of 1909.

Defining genocide during the rubber boom

From Genocide Convention page: "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. — Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 2[7]"

---

DEVELOP THE CONCEPT OF "SLAVERY AS GENOCIDE" IN REGARDS TO THE PUTUMAYO AND OTHER RIVER BASINS AFFECTED BY THE RUBBER BOOM

-Targeting members of the group during the Putumayo genocide:

“The Indian communities had been everywhere deprived of their native weapons. Perhaps a greater defence than their spears and blow-pipes even had been more ruthlessly destroyed. Their old people, both women and men, respected for character and ability to wisely advise, had been marked from the first as dangerous, and in the early stages of the occupation were done to death. Their crime had been the giving of ‘bad advice.’ To warn the more credulous or less experienced{312} against the white enslaver and to exhort the Indian to flee or to resist rather than consent to work rubber for the new-comers had brought about their doom. I met no old Indian man or woman, and few had got beyond middle age. The Barbados men assured me that when they first came to the region in the beginning of 1905 old people were still to be found, vigorous and highly respected, but these had all disappeared, so far as I could gather, before my coming."

"Horrified by the cruelty and the orders of this hateful monster, who ordered us, when we captured Indians, to kill old ones and to take only the young ones, - horrified, I repeat, by this vile wretch..." - Aquileo Erazo in regards to a Calderon employed by Arana. Seems to be Rafael Calderon.

"The 'old woman' had given 'bad advice' to the Indians. She was a 'wise woman' that counselled them not to work rubber - not to be slaves. So her old head was cut off with a machete and this whiteman who has just shaken hands with us and sits down besides us to lunch, had held it up by the hair to the assembled Indians and tild them that would be their fate if they did not obey him and work caucho. What a curse there is in those words - to work caucho.

"“Every one of these criminals kept a large staff of unfortunate Indian women for immoral purposes—termed by a euphemism their ‘wives.’ Even péons had sometimes more than one Indian wife. The gratification of this appetite to excess went hand in hand with the murderous instinct which led these men to torture and kill the very parents and kinsmen of those they cohabited with."

See Hardenburg quote for Macedo ordering the execution of all natives that were missing limbs.

El Comercio quote which appears in Hardenburg: "In the basin of the Madre de Dios and its affluents... It would appear that the new Commissioner is resolved to put a stop to the barbarous custom of the correrrias[10] organised by the authorities themselves or by the rubber-merchants, who carry on the repugnant business of selling the poor Chunchos. As labour and women are both scarce, and as there is a strong demand for the one and the other, bands of armed men are constantly organised for sudden descents upon groups or communities of the savages, no matter whether they are friendly or hostile, making them prisoners in the midst of extermination and blood. Urged on by the profit resulting from the sale of boys, robust youths, and young women (frescas mujeres), they tear children from mothers and wives from husbands without pity, and pass them from hand to hand as slaves."

Jorge Von Hassel, appears in Hardenburg "Some of them have accepted the ‘civilisation’ offered by the rubber-merchants, others have been annihilated by them. On the other hand, alcohol, rifle bullets, and smallpox have worked havoc among them in a few years"

"Barbarities committed by the rubber-merchants upon the Indians of the Ucayali and Marañon were brought to the knowledge of the Peruvian Government in 1903 and 1906 by Roman Catholic missionaries established there and published by the Minister of Justice." This quote emphasizes the Peruvian government's failure to act against atrocities perpetrated by caucheros up until the exposure of the Putumayo genocide.

"The Asháninka who did not agree to collect rubber were instead the targets of correrias, or slave raids."

"It was a common practice to kill the indigenous males and enslave the women and children during these raids."

^Valcarcel refers to the Putumayo basin while Huertas Castillo refers to Von Hassel's writing

"In these circumstances, the high death rate and family disintegration caused panic among the mainly native populations, some of whom chose to flee."

SEE HUERTAS CASTILLO P51 LONG QUOTE, REFERS TO EXTERMINATION ON THE MANU RIVER, VALDEZ 1944 STATES NATIVES WERE FORCED TO LEAVE THEIR TERRITORY DUE TO FITZCARRALD.

"He [Fitzcarrald] massacred many hundreds of Toyeri and Araseri in Madre de Dios because they did not want to work for him or permit his rubber tappers to gain access to their territories. Amongst other things, several hamlets were destroyed with machine guns."

COMPARE THIS QUOTE WITH THE GENEVA CONVENTION DEFINITION OF GENOCIDE 1. The pacific Indians of the Putumayo are forced to work day and night at the extraction of rubber, without the slightest remuneration except the food necessary to keep them alive.[b][c, deliberate starvation, as a means of punishment or extermination?]

2. They are kept in the most complete nakedness, many of them not even possessing the biblical fig-leaf.

3. They are robbed of their crops, their women, and their children to satisfy the voracity, lasciviousness, and avarice of this company and its employees, who live on their food and violate their women.[e][b, on basis of starvation][c?]

4. They are sold wholesale and retail in Iquitos, at prices that range from £20 to £40 each.[e]

5. They are flogged inhumanly until their bones are laid bare, and great raw sores cover them.[b]

6. They are given no medical treatment, but are left to die, eaten by maggots, when they serve as food for the chiefs’ dogs.[a][b]

7. They are castrated and mutilated, and their ears, fingers, arms, and legs are cut off.[d](castration as punishment or as a means to prevent birth?)

8. They are tortured by means of fire and water, and by tying them up, crucified head down.[b]

9. Their houses and crops are burned and destroyed wantonly and for amusement.[b][d]

10. They are cut to pieces and dismembered with knives, axes, and machetes.[a][b]

11. Their children are grasped by the feet and their heads are dashed against trees and walls until their brains fly out.[a]

12. Their old folk are killed when they are no longer able to work for the company.[a]

13. Men, women, and children are shot to provide amusement for the employees or to celebrate the sábado de gloria, or, in preference to this, they are burned with kerosene so that the employees may enjoy their desperate agony.[a][b]

"The constant fear of consuming or carrying tobacco is related to its alleged (and, in some cases, real) connection with rebellions against rubber tappers. But it can also be explained by its importance for the practices of shamanism and witchcraft."

La Chorrea

"The name of Arana in connection with the Putumayo begins from 1896 as a sort of peddling vendor of goods needed by the Colombians. The first contact of the Aranas with the Colombians was subsequent to that year, when Pablo Zumaeta, Lizardo Arana, and Abel Cardenas sent their steam-launch the Galvez (in charge of Lizardo Arana as captain) to the Caraparana, where Lizardo found many Colombians established and bought from them 6 tons of rubber. From this first visit the Aranas set to work first to trade with the Colombians, then to purchase their interest in the region and to 'buy the tribes of Indians they had conquered,' and finally to conduct, as the avowed agents of Peruvian aggrandisement, a regular campaign against 'these bad people,' and thus successfully to 'nationalise a territory that had been almost lost through foreign aggression.""

Imagenes e suceso page 87 corroborates that the Galvez collected 6,000 kilos of rubber from the Caraparana river in 1896. I believe the source of Casement's information and the source for this reference in "informes del juez Paredes" of imagenes e suceso is the same.

Death toll quote by R.C."...during the course of these twelve years, in order to extort these 4,000 tons of rubber, cannot have been less than 30,000, and possibly came to many more. - Correspondence, Blue Book No. 41 dated 5 February 1912.

..."the evil practice the Arana firm had always followed of buying all its supplies and goods for the Indians, &c, in Iquitos - the dearest market - instead of importing far better quality goods from Europe at a far lower cost. Thus, the two head agencies, El Encanto and La Chorrera, were over-debted at the very outset with 100 per cent over the true local value of the goods they received, and they in their turn over-debited the sections, where the chiefs, following the evil practice to its logical outcome, required the Indians to bring in 'fabulous quantities of rubber for this trash.'"

The judicial commission of 1911 began their investigation at La Chorrera on March 27.

The judge established "the existence of many more crimes than those which had been denounced."

Paredes questioned members of the Huitoto, Ocaina, Andoque, Muinane, Nonuya, Recigaro, and Bora nations during his investigation. "They are now weak, rickety, and degenerate through their enforced labour and sufferings, and work without cease."

"Of all of them those who most moved me to pity were the Indians of the section of Atenas; these were human skeletons rather than men. Here the chiefs of section, had been more wrathful, and hunger and punishments had done more than in other sections."

"Those of the Atenas Indians whom I saw looked more like walking skeletons than human beings."

"The murders, the cruel punishments, the constant hunger, the flights and pursuits have rapidly done away with all this population, compelling finally this unhappy conclusion: that whereas in other parts of the Peruvian department of Loreto the rubber-gatherers kill Indians because they do not wish to work, in the Putumayo they kill Indians because they do work."

"The punishments inflicted by these chiefs of section were atrocious, and increased in proportion to the shortage per kilogramme of rubber which the Indians failed to collect, this being the most serious crime, entailing sentence of death on whomsoever, owing to fatigue, sickness, or any other reason, failed to bring in their quota. The only idea that possessed them was to obtain the maximum production of rubber, so that everyone who opposed this object, who failed to work and bring in the quantity expected, or who fled from the exactions of their executioners was flayed with the lash or killed without pity."

"Hunger has been perhaps the most terrible scourge which has fallen on the Putumayo. This insatiable greed to obtain the largest amount [of rubber] in the shortest time, and with the smallest possible expenditure, was undoubtedly one of the chief causes of crime, for those Indians who did not comply - with the extortionate demands made upon them were tortured and killed without remorse, and the obstinate were compelled by (force of) matchet and bullet to perform their tasks. Crime swelled in proportion to the rubber returned, and mounted step by step with the number of kilogrammes of rubber obtained. Thus, the larger the number of murders, the higher the production, which is to say that a large proportion of the rubber was produced out of blood and corpses."

A burn pit for the cremation of murdered natives was found by the judicial commission at Santa Catalina.

Regarding Santa Catalina and Abisinia, Paredes wrote "This station and the preceding one (Santa Catalina) were the chief centres of the bloody raids against the Boras tribe, from which it may be gathered how many slaughters took place. These huntings of the indians ('corerrias'), which should also be called these infamous expeditions ('comisiones'), which sets out to spread terror and death among these unhappy savages had no other object save destruction"

The Oriente rubber station was located within the territory of the Ocaina natives.

Aftermath of the Peruvian Amazon Company

"The Huitoto, Andoke, and Bora Indians did not encounter the white men until the last decade of the nineteenth century; there was only one generation between their first encounter with the caucheros and the publication of the Blue Book which so shocked the civilized world. The white's lust for latex had devasted the Indians in a dreadfully short time. There was nowhere for them to turn, nowhere for them to hide or escape to. Their homeland was virtually sealed off from the rest of the world-their only contact with it via the launches of the Peruvian Amazon Company." -Goodman, 2010 page 265

Normand, O’Donnell, Jimenez, Agüero and other managers were dismissed from the Company around 1910, before the dissolution of the Peruvian Amazon Company. Some of Arana’s managers, like the Loayza brothers retained property as well as a native work force after the company’s liquidation. Arana, who was appointed the liquidator of the company, also managed to retain a native work force and some property in the Putumayo.

Jimenez and Agüero managed to escape the region with around 10-18 huitoto families and “muchachos de confianzas.”

Pablo Zumaeta was elected mayor of Iquitos during the Company’s liquidation in 1912, and again in 1914, after the company was shut down. Refer to Iquitos Almanac.

Arana was elected senator of Loreto in 1922(is this correct year?)

Between the mid 1920s to late 1930s a series of forced migrations took place in the Putumayo, when the border between Colombia and Peru threatened to change. These migrations were primarily instigated by Miguel S. Loayza and Julio Arana. At least 6,719 natives (from the Huitoto, Bora, Andoque and Ocaina populations) were moved to the Ampiyacu basin. According to Carlos Loayza, half of this population died from disease, starvation, and other causes along the journey.

Arana tried to sell his land concession in the Putumayo region in 1939, but apparently made a bad financial deal and came out of the situation seemingly poor.

Texaco incursion into the region

According to International Labour Organisation, there were around 33,000 People in conditions of forced labor in the Peruvian Amazon Basin in 2005. "Peruvian Amazon, with the main areas being Ucayali, Madre de Dios, Loreta, Pucallpa, Atalaya and Puerto Maldonado"

Contemporary forms of slavery in Peru, 2006, describes the conditions of forced labor and debt bondage in the Peruvian Amazon. Enganche is also referred too

Use of Indigenous labor

"during the recent combat of La Pedrera (July 1911), the Peruvian troops found themselves fighting not only against the Colombians, but were opposed by 'a band of thirty Huitotos, who fought bravely in the trenches of the enemy against the troops of their motherland."

^ THIS IMPLICATES BATTLE OF LA PEDRERA IN THE PUTUMAYO GENOCIDE

FOR PAC PAGE

"Payments for rubber were not made at a 'puesta,' but only on completion of a 'fabrico,' and these payments were termed 'advances,' i.e., advances for the next 'fabrico.' The principle here is that the Indian having accepted an advance must work it off. He is a 'debtpr'; on the Putumayo a compulsory debtor, for he could not evade the next 'fabrico' by rejecting this advance. The chief kept the lists, often unreliable, of all such 'workers' in his section - that is to say, of all the Indians he had sufficiently reduced to compel to work for him..."

https://catalogue.nli.ie/Record/vtls000722524

The Indigenous work force was expected to provide all of the labour for the Company and its employees. Some of these responsibilities include, bringing firewood for the Company steamships; providing food for the Company employees as well as the construction of plantations for food, of which they receive little for themselves; providing the labour establish stations for the Company, including clearing out the surrounding forest and the construction of buildings; the labour (with tremendous effort) to clear paths for a road in the forest; at times their wives and children, the women were used as concubines and water girls, at times they collected firewood, the boys were used as muchachos de confianzas against rival tribes;

• Firewood
• Labour for the clearing and construction of roads, usually at great effort
• Labour for the construction of Company stations, including buildings and cutting down the surrounding forest.
• Their wives and daughters.

"From building these huge houses (this one is fully 45 yards long and as strong as an old three-decker) clearing great tracts of forest, making plantations of yucca, mealy, sugar cane, &c, constructing roads and bridges at great labour, for these men to more easily get at them - to supplying them with 'wives', with food, with game from the chase, often with their own food just made for their own pressing wants, with labour to meet every conceivable form of demand. All this the Indians supply for absolutely no renumeration of any kind, this entirely in addition to the India rubber which is the keystone of the arch. At Occidente it yields (LB$)10,000 a year, here, [at Ultimo Retiro] possibly, (LB$)5,000 and the expense of running these Stations after the Chief's percentage is subtracted is scarcely anything, for even the racionales are robbed." Roger Casement, Monday 10th October 1910.

Floggings

Floggings occurred in almost every section belonging to the Peruvian Amazon Company in the Putumayo. Testimonies collected by Roger Casement, Benjamin Saldadna Rocca, and Valcarcel confirm this in the following sections: La China, Matanzas, Entre Rios, Abisinia, La Sabana, Ultimo Retiro, La Chorrera, El Encanto, Porvenir.....

Floggings were carried out in a variety of ways, one consisted of cutting a "V" shaped wedge into a tree after cutting the tree down. A chain was then tied against the neck of a native and pulled against the wedge, which lifted the victim up. According to the Barbadian Frederick Bishop, a man employed by the Company for this punishment and overseeing the natives, "this flogging is done at nearly all the sections." Paternoster P173-174

Bartolomé Guevara introduced another method of flagellation, where a Native was tied to four stakes and then flogged. Hardenburg P232 Bartolomé Guevara was chief of Porvenir at El Encanto for a while.

"the victims were so many, it would have needed many months for the work."

Katenere's Rebellion

Katenere's rebellion, as relayed by Roger Casement and his evidence.

See AJRC P337-338 for "Katenere's guerrilla war"

"when he tried to rescue her, he was shot down. so ended the only resistence to the company's ruthless system."

-Wife outraged by Bartolomme Zumaeta.

After killing B. Zumaeta, "Thenceforward he became an object of constant fear, and expeditions were fitted out from Abisinia and Morelia to catch or kill Katenere. It was one one of these missions that Filomene Vasquez and his party had gone in summer of 1910, when he 'had left the road pretty'." This group captured Katenere's wife to act as a decoy. see Katenere was shot by one of the Abisinia c muchachos.

PATERNOSTER PAGES

-Katenere was a Bora's chief on the upper Pamá tributary, which is a stream that feeds into the Cahuinari River. Frederick Bishop stated that he first saw Katenere in 1907 when Armando Normand went to "convince" the chief to extract rubber for him, and Katenere was pressured into doing so. (Did Bishop relay actions about this "Commission"?) It did not take long for this chief to flee from the abuses Normand and Co were perpetrating. Katenere, his wife, and several members of his tribe were captured and brought to the Abisinia station "to undergo the taming process." Amazon Casement Journal describes conflict at Abisinia with the syphiliptic B. Zumaeta. Katenere managed to escape again from Abisinia, later shooting and killing Bartolome.

James Chase was on the "Commission" to hunt Katenere and end his rebellion, sometime in May 1910. See Hardenburg P 317-321 + AJRC P? for testimony on commission, and the death of Katenere, his child, thirteen others of his tribe, and more.

Jermin, or Filomene, Vasquez (Not Alejandro Vasquez???), Hardenburg 268. Boasts about leaving the road pretty after the thirteen on the road between Caqueta and Morelia.

"This man, who was not an old man, but young and strong,"

"While thus himself a prisoner, his wife, so I was informed by a Peruvian white man holding a well-paid post in the company’s service, had been publicly violated before his eyes by one of the highest agents of the Syndicate, a Peruvian whose name and record was frequently brought forward in the course of my inquiry. This man had been obliged to fly from the Caraparaná agency on account of his crimes in that region in 1908." - This must be referring to Bartolome Zumaeta, who Katenere later killed. Bartolome had a role in the 1908 raids with Loayza. Caraparana agency is Loayza's agency.

[cont.] "Katenere escaped, aided, I was told, by an Indian girl, who lifted the top beam of the cepo when no one was looking. HE not only got off, but succeeded then or later in capturing some Winchester rifles from muchachos of the Abisinia district. With these he armed others of his clan, and thenceforward waged an open war against the whites and all the Indians who helped them or worked rubber for them..." see entry 31 october

• Corroborating statement on

"Katenere was a fine, tall, strong young Boras cacique, who worked rubber at first but fled from Normand's ill-treatment of him. He it was who shot the scoundrel Bartolome Zumaeta in May 1908 at a stream in the Boras country while the villain was directing the washing of rubber. Since that Katenere has been "on his keeping" to the hills - as we said once in Ireland - and every effort to kill or capture him failed until this last attack of his own on the station of Abisinia itself. What a pity he did not succeed."

Capture of Katenere's wife mentioned on page 337 Casement 1997, during Evelyn Baton's statement. Refer to Slavery in Peru, Baton's deposition for more info.

"They had captured the wife of Katenere, and she was brought back to Abisinia to act as a decoy, her captors feeling sure that Katenere would come to look for his wife. This he had indeed done about the beginning of August 1910 or end of July, and it was while preparing to attack Abisinia in the dusk that he was shot by one of the young 'muchachos' of that section, as stated in the deposition of Evelyn Batson, which accompanies this report. His brother, who was already a prisoner in the stocks, tried to escape that night, and was murdered by Juan Zellada, one of the station 'racionales,' who often seems to have taken charge of that district in the temporary absences of its chief, Aguero. The death of Katenere was greatly to be deplored.

Muchachos de confianza

-REFER TO SHABA CARRIBA trading metal tools with Natives for orphans in 1880s. p189 imaginario e imagenes A. Chirif

Years before the Peruvian Amazon Company came into existence, one way rubber tappers expanded their work force was trading metal tools like an axe or machete, for a year of work, or a ten year old child. Prior to the arrival of Arana in the region, this was practiced by the administrators of La Chorrera like Victor Macedo.

-The AJRC glossary defines the Muchachos as: "Confidence boys - armed Indian quislings used by the Chiefs of Sections to kill and torture."

-Boys used against tribes they are rivals of. Find source.

-Used as runners for messages. One instance occurs on AJRC P 264, O'Donnell's muchacho. Another on p296

-Some of the muchachos carry Winchester rifles. Hardenburg P303

-If they do not carry out the orders of the blanco, the muchacho runs the risk of murder.

-"Some of the muchachos are really only boys or lads - but others are men of 25 to 30."

-Whiffen "attributes much of the criminality to the muchachos or to the innate cruelty of the Indians." Casement counters this claim on next page. "The muchachos have been brutalised, and made to behead and shoot, to flog and outrage. They are only another instance of the hopeless obedience of these people."

-“Incidentally, too, it illustrates the depravity entailed by the whole system. ‘Chico’ was one of the ‘civilised’ Indians of Abisinia - one of those armed and drilled to obey and execute the orders of the civilisers on the wild, or in other words, defenseless Indians. With what result? He revolts. He becomes ‘a bandit’ an armed terror ‘threatening the lives of white men even,’ and so is shot out of hand by a laboruer of British birth in the Company’s service…”

-One of these ways of torture, practiced at least at Occidente, was carried out by one employee and his muchachos, where they would half drown their victim under a river to terrorize them. Bishop testified to this.

"Hierarchies imposed by colonizers often encouraged local tribal hostilities as a means of more effective control. Muchachos forcibly recruited from one tribe were often deployed in territories belonging to traditionally antagonistic clans. Such methods generally increased tribal tensions and manifested the state of fear. See Taussig, Shamanisms... P122" AJRC P119

-The Natives [who transport rubber] are collected every two weeks by the muchachos de confianzas at the Occidente station and presumably other stations of the Company.

"Bishop... said to Barnes and myself 'That girl's father, sir, was killed by his muchachos a few months ago.' I recognized the signifiance at the time but not so fully as now.... The muchachos armed and excercised in murdering their own unfortunate countrymen, or rather, Boras Indians murdering Huitotos and vice versa for the pleasure, or supposed profit of their masters, who in the end turn on these (from a variety of motives) and kill them. And this is called 'civilising' the wild savage Indians."

-Bishop knew O'Donnell had sent out his muchachos to kill natives when they weren't bringing rubber. . O'Donnell relied on his muchachos and employees to carry out executions and capital punishments.

"Clearly the muchachos civilised and armed are more dangerous to civilisation than the poor, wild, unarmed Indians of the woods, who are the prey of the civilisers."

-They were NOT on the station paysheet. According to Tizon "they already knew at all the Chief Stations this local staff." From the conversation with Tizon RC was convinced there was never an inquiry into what happened to a muchacho de confianza who disappeared. . This excludes those who have run away, since they would be hunted down.

-One incident of Muchachos used by company against other Natives on Hardenburg P317-322, this incident appears on PATERNOSTER papers.

-Case of cannibalism instigated by A. Aguero. See AJRC P 337 lower half.

-"He had found the bodies tied on stakes and assured me the Indians had not eaten any of these men - they 'had a repugnance to eating white men, whom they hate too much.'" This is referring to a conversation R.C. had w/ Andres O'Donnell, regarding a massacre of Colombians in 1903. "Terrible reprisals subsequently fell upon these Indians and all in the neighbourhood who were held responsible for this killing of the Colombians in 1903 and later years."

^Punitive raids by Ramon Sanchez at end of 1904 may have been due to this.

P268 muchacho sent to find wife of Negretti, who had run away. RC found him in a starving state.

-There was a hatred between the Native rubber collectors and the Muchachos because they were working with the Company to oppress others. Chirif P117

-"Two rebellious muchachos," "four whites killed." Bucelli and Luis de Silva shot by the muchachos. They were imprisoned at Matanzas but later escaped. Katofa was one of the muchachos, and he had journeyed with Bishop + Rouchon years earlier.

-Rebellion of Pachiko and his killing after giving himself up.

-Goodman P106-107 for excerpt of C. Miranda ordering Muchacho to execute woman and display her head. P 108-109 for execution of those running away by muchacho.

-Goodman, P144 regarding Aguero's dismissal and him fleeing with muchachos after burning the Boras chacaras.

"United they stand and divided they rob, each for himself, in his own patch of forest, and all together against the Indians and the outside world, Peruvivan or Colombia - until the last drop of Jebe debil has been hacked from the heart of this miserable forest, and the last Huitoto and Boras has been burned alive or civilised into a muchacho de confianza and has murdered his patron. This sounds incredible and unreal, and a gross exaggeration. It is nothing of the kind. It is no more incredible than what we hear daily, and fact by fact, are beginning to accept as strictly true..."

"As Macedo is alleged to have said: 'The Indians are not here to plant chacaras. They are here to get rubber."

Commercial houses exporting rubber in Iquitos, 1900.

• 1 Wesche y Co. - Owned Vapor Herman (107T), owner of Carlos (70T)
• 2 Marius y Levy - Marius Vatan, who's Levy?
• 3 Hernandez, Magne y C.* - Cecilio Hernandez, who's Magne?
• 4 Luis F. Morey e hijos - Luis Felipe Morey. Owned el Vapor Amazonas (128T), later acquired Veloz (14T) from Enrique Llosa
• 5 Pinto Hermanos - Need more info
• 6 Kant y C. -
• 7 Kant y Polack - Polack's important, who is that.
• 8 Adolfo Morey - LFM's brother, owner of Vapor Ucayali (46T)
• 9 M. Rocha e hijos - owned el Vapor Portugal (134T), and Callao (5T), Callao later acquired by Arana.
• 10 Juan B. Vega - Business partner to LFM + JCA, an original founder of PAC
• 11 Louis Vatin
• 12 David Cazes - English consul
• 13 M. Neves [en liquidacion] - who took their assets?
• 14 F. Hunes y Co.
• 15 Benasayag, Toledano y C.* - Partner c. to Toledano's?
• 16 Toledano hermanos
• 17 Leon Bentes
• 18 Venancio F Pereira
• 19 Juan Abelardo Morey e Hijo - Brother to LFM + AM
• 20 Farache Hermanos
• 21 Fiscarrald, Suarez y C* - !!! Operating 3 years after the death of Fitzcarrald. Suarez partnership company with Fitz. Were all their assets seized by Iquitos gov? Suarez actions against Peru in Madre de Dios reason for C* no longer existing shortly after 1900? Who took the Union (65T) steamship? Bolivar (14T) belonging to Vaca Diez listed as being in Iquitos.
• 22 Benjamin Maya
• 23 Guillermo Schermuly
• 24 Julio Arana
• 25 David Bahabot

Luis Felipe Morey - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Luis_F._Morey_e_Hijos_office_in_Iquitos,_on_Calle_de_Pr%C3%B3spero.jpg

• Progressing with points of interest

-Battle of Las Pedras -1907-1908 PAC raids against Colombians -Peruvian military aid to PAC. + Occupation of the Putumayo. -PAC commissions, particularly Jimenez in the Caqueta, 1910. An invasion of foreign territory to chase Natives. -Pacaya Rubber Co., Victor Israel Iller -Juan B. Vega -Morey brothers, Morey, Vega y Compania -Vapores y lanches de las caucheros en Iquitos. Specifically Veloz (Enrique Llosa -> Morey y J.C.A), Bolivar (Vaca Diez > J.C.A?), Liberal, Perservanca, Iquitos, Cosmopolita, Union (Fiscarrald -> Military?), Amazonas (128 tons, L.F. Morey), Callao (5 tons, M. Rocha y Hijos -> J.C.A)

Hooking by debts

The Company practiced the "enganche por deudas" system, or "hooking by debts." Enganche entailed getting a person that is working for a company in debt, and keeping them in a perpetual state of indebtedness. In this way the employee becomes dependent on the Company, unable to leave the region until they can pay off this debt. This affected not only the Native work force but also the Company employees. Even a few of the station chiefs like Abelardo Agüero were in debt to the Company. Many of the Barbadian employees were in debt to the Company and under a contract that would not allow them to leave the region until the debt was paid. In Roger Casement's own words, "There is little doubt the men have been robbed."

In Casement's word, the "raccionales are robbed" since they receive such a small amount of food from the Company that most (if not all) of their paycheck goes towards food.

Food, medicine and other important items that could be found in a store were sold by the Company at extortionate rates. Roger Casement believed that some of these goods were sold fully beyond %1,000 their worth. Originally, the company stipulated it would provide these necessities however employees found this was often not the case.

The contract also stated that the Company would provide a free fair home. However any debts owed to the Co. would have to be paid off first. Even then it was possible for an administrator of the Company to withhold this trip home.

Unrestricted gambling, which the Company allowed, was also another factor that affected debts. In place of physical currency, informal documents were written up which promised to pay a gambling debt at a later date. The Company advances credit to the employee who is owed the money, and transfers the debt onto their books. Most of the employees in the region, including the Barbadians and muchachos de confianza's had "wives", some of them also had children. These dependents were a large contributor to increasing the debts owed to the Company.

On multiple occasions the contracts given to the Barbadians were violated by the Company. There are several documented cases of the Company not paying the Barbadians for their work. One instance that was reported to a British Vice-Consul in Manaus, stated that Frederick Bishop received no pay at all for working at Colonia Rio Jano, where he cut firewood in 1905. Bishop and other Barbadians that complained were told by the vice-consul that they must abide by their contracts to Arana, and that he could not help. Bishop later requested to leave the Putumayo when some of the men were being sent home on account of sickness. However Miguel S. Loayza refused his request since he "was not ill and was serviceable as a flogger, so he had to stay on and do this filthy work.'" He soon fell into debt with the Company and over the years flogged many Native men.

The Natives were paid an "advance" of "goods.". Casement estimated that the amount of goods given to the Natives at any one station did not reach more than ($LB)100.

See Hardenburg P273 for description of enganche system in Casement's words. "The system depends on an employer getting an employee in debt, and keeping them there."

" “Throughout the greater part of the Amazon region, where the rubber trade flourishes, a system of dealing prevails which is not tolerated in civilised communities. In so far as it affects a labouring man or an individual who sells his labour, it is termed peonage, and is repressed by drastic measures in some parts of the New World. It consists in getting the person working for you into your debt and keeping him there; and in lieu of other means of discharging this obligation he is forced to work for his creditor upon what are practically the latter’s terms, and under varying forms of bodily constraint. In the Amazon Valley this method of dealing has been expanded until it embraces, not only the Indian workman, but is often made to apply to those who are themselves the employers of this kind of labour. By accumulated obligations contracted in this way, one trader will pledge his business until it and himself become practically the property of the creditor. His business is merged, and he himself becomes an employee, and often finds it very hard to escape from the responsibilities he has thus contracted."

— Roger Casement

"Here I had the opportunity to observe that the free medicines that this company so generously offers to its employees are reduced to a little Epsom salt. They also occasionally dole out a few grains of quinine." Deposition of Celestino Lopez, Hardenburg P248-249. In his letter to Hardenburg, Celestino explained that Agüero paid him 50 soles a month instead of a promised sum of 80 soles a month. Food and any medicine was deducted from his paychecks, he declared that after working for three months he had only made 71 soles. This is the man who said "Unfortunate is the poor wretch who lets himself be deceived by the smooth words of the “civilising” company!"

Daniel Collantes statement, Hardenburg P263

"In 1902 I went to the Señores Arana of this city and asked them for work in the rubber business which I was told they had in the Putumayo. My application was at once accepted by Julio C. Arana, who promised me S.40 per month good food, medicines, and passage there and back. I will state that these promises were not carried out, but were disregarded to such an extreme that I became almost a slave of this company."

— Daniel Collantes

R.C. discovered Joshua Dyall was £44 indebt to the Company.

Due to the low availability of food in the region, Barbadians would steal food from the Natives some times. Find page AJRC

"for goods nominally purchased from its stores. Some of this indebtedness was for indispensable articles of food or clothing, things that the working-man could not do without. These are all sold at prices representing often, I am convinced, 1,000 per cent. over their cost prices or prime value. Much of the men’s indebtedness to the company was also due to the fact that they were married...Another fruitful cause of debt was the unrestricted gambling that was openly carried on up to the period at which I visited the district. The employees at all the stations passed their time, when not hunting the Indians, either lying in their hammocks or in gambling. As there is no money in circulation, gambling debts can only be paid by writing an I O U, which the winner passes on to the chief agency at La Chorrera, where it is carried to the debit of the loser in the company’s books." R.C's report, Hardenburg p284-285

CASA SUAREZ + Inca Rubber + Tambopata Syndicate also practiced ENGANCHE!

The topic of Cannibalism

• "It is the central argument of the rubber tappers and their

defenders to justify their civilizing role."

• See claim of cannibalism against Nestor Reyes as well as the information that claims he committed suicide.

• See Taussig 1991 page 27 for Rocha's information regarding C. Hernandez's extermination of a Huitoto tribe for perceived cannibalism.

• According to Taussig, Hardenburg denounced the rumors insinuating the indigenous people of the Putumayo River were cannibals as propaganda see , page also refers to Charles C. Eberhardts information on cannibalism submitted in his 1907 consular report. It is important to note that Eberhardt most likely did not witness any instances of cannibalism and he may have been given this information by employees of Arana's company.

In his 1905 book, the Colombian traveler Joaquin Rocha wrote about information he heard regarding the death of Colombian patron Emilio Gutierrez. According to this information, Gutierrez travelled towards the Lower Caqueta in order to establish a rubber station, which would have been dependent on indigenous labor. Gutierrez along with three of his companions were killed while asleep by the natives at their settlement. Thirty laborer's from Gutierrez's work force were killed by natives around this time as well. When the white patrons in the area received this news they sent muchachos de confianzas in pursuit of the perpetrators of this attack, "some of whom were killed outright, some taken as prisoners for the whites, while the majority escaped. Some were captured and eaten by these Indian mercenaries." In 1910, Roger Casement was provided an account of this incident by Andrés O'Donnell, the Peruvian Amazon Company manager of Entre Rios, which claimed that Gutierrez travelled up the Caqueta in a steamship with sixty men, "Colombians and Brazilians", all of whom were killed at night by the local natives. According to O'Donnell "All the heads were cut off and the arms and legs. The teeth were drawn from the head as trophies - the bodies were tied with a rope and kept as 'souvenirs' - to be hauled out and exhibited until decomposition set in." O'Donnell claimed that Gutierrez and his companions were not cannibalized because the local indigenous people "had a repugnance to eating white men, whom they hated too much." Casement noted that indigenous people in the area faced "terrible reprisals" for the killing of Gutierrez and his group. Two statements from Colombians, which appear in Las Crueldades en el Putumayo y en el Caquetá, claimed that the attack against Gutierrez was orchestrated by Arana's company.

"Several cases of the killing of large numbers of white men were brought to my notice when travelling in the Putumayo but those who had been almost spectators of these sights (having come to the scene in time to bury the dead) assured me that in no case had the Indians eaten whitemen they had killed."

The Barbadian Evelyn Batson told Casement that four months prior to his arrival in the Putumayo, a Bora man was butchered at Abisinia and his limbs were cannibalized by the muchachos de confianza of the station under the orders of Abelardo Agüero. Baton's statement was corroborated by another Barbadian named Allan Davis.

See regarding the article written by Antonio Menacho and published by El Comercio of Lima in 1912. Menacho's essay is a defense of the Peruvian cauchero and he claimed that employees of Arana's company were acting in self defense and "maintaining the territorial integrity of Peru in that distant portion of the Fatherland." According to Menacho, indigenous people of the Putumayo were cannibals, he specifically mentioned the Ocaina, Bora and Andoque nations as the perpetrators of cannibalism against employees of Arana's company. The article provided the names of several employees from Arana's company that had died over the years, including Ernesto Zumaeta, twelve employees at Matanzas in 1904, Enoch Richards, all of whom were victims of cannibalism according to Menacho.

According to Michael Taussig, "Allegations of cannibalism served not only to justify enslavement of Indians by the Spanish and the Portuguese from the sixteenth century onwards; such allegations also served to flesh out the repertoire of violence in the colonial imagination . "

According to Augustus Walcott, "to frighten the Indians [Armando Normand] told them that the [Barbadian] negroes were cannibals, and a fierce tribe of cannibals who eat people , and that if they did not bring in rubber these black men would be sent to kill and eat them."

"The only case of cannibalism I became acquainted with during my mission in the Putumayo," avowed the judge, "was that ordered by the civilized themselves." footnote 55 ^ this is actually in reference to the murder of 3 natives at La Sabana, which the manager Rodriguez told his muchachos to cannibalize for lunch. The three native victims were Muinanes and the muchachos de confianza in question were Nonuyas. "The Indians accepted the spoils given with repugnance, they pretended eating for fear of threats and punishment, and with skill they got rid of the stew."

"Among other atrocious things that Dr Paredes states to me are repeated acts of cannibalism not arising from the desire of the Indians, but forced on them by Aguero, Fonseca, Flores and others of the white employees. He declares that these men ordered Indians that they had murdered to be cut up and cooked and ordered some of the criminals muchachos they had brought up to be their bodyguards to eat them and this was done. He even relates how, in more than one case, the genital organs of men were cut off, cooked and prisoners forced to eat this, the only food given them."

• Arana claimed that the natives "had resisted the establishment of civilization in their districts, that they had been resisting for many years and had practiced cannibalism. "

• "on these savage regions that as recent as 25 years ago were peopled entirely by cannibals. Owing to the energy of this tireless struggler [Arana] they have been converted into useful elements of labor."24 - check footnote 24 in reference to

• Refutation of "Robuchon's" claim of cannibalism:

"The judicial commission, which was in all parts of the sections, was able to ascertain absolutely the contrary, and if it had previously read the horrible scenes of diabolical feast narrated by that engineer it is probable that it would not have dared to make as extensive a tour as it did, living for some time among seven tribes, viz, the Witotoas, Ocainas, Andokes, Muinanes, Nonuyas, Rezigaros, and Boras. "Lieutenant Maw believed that the practice of eating their fellow man had been forced upon the Indians by Portugese and Brazilian free-booters, who in hunting them for slaves had driven them away from their natural resorts where food was more easily obtained, to hide in the depths of the forest where preying upon each other became to some extent a law of life."

• "The Indian who is stout enough to resist enslavement, is always wrong, and therefore a 'cannibal.'" According to Angus Mitchell, the editor of Casement's 1910 journal "Casement considered cannibalism to be in the most part a myth used to justify the process of civilization and the subjugation of the Putumayo Indians..." check quote to ensure it's word for word. possibly best used under information on Menacho's essay.

• "Speaking for the company, Arana assumed, con fundamento, that the

Frenchman had been the victim of the cannibal Indians that populate those 1 1 8 Chapter Five parts.33" page 117-118 of taussig 118 notes that Robuchon's manuscript was compiled and published by Carlos Rey de Castro "one of Arana's closest associates"

• On footnote 159 of Whiffen's book, titled The North-West Amazons: Notes of some months spent among cannibal tribes, Whiffen wrote "I never was present at a cannibal feast. The information comes from Robuchon's account, checked by cross-questioning the Indians with whom I came in contact."47"

• Hardenburg wrote: " Now that the Peruvian Amazon Company has monopolised the region priests are carefully excluded, and everything that tends to the instruction and enlightenment of the wretched aborigines is carefully done away with. Indeed, in order to frighten people and thus prevent them from entering that region, they have circulated most bloodcurdling reports of the ferocity and cannibalism of these helpless Indians, whom other travellers as well as Perkins and myself have found to be timid, peaceful, mild, industrious, and humble"

See Valcarcel 2004 page 220 footnotes for refutation of cannibalism by Paredes. "I maintain with all the firmness of a convinced person that the Putumayo Indians may have killed some white people, when it was impossible for them to endure their abuses their evils and their crimes any longer; but it has never occurred to them to eat it [,the flesh white men]. I would know it, as I made an effort to prove cases of cannibalism, asking everyone, examining everyone: Indians, blacks, Colombians, Peruuvians, without anyone confirming a single case of that savage custom occurred in said region.

Sources for the claims of cannibalism:

• Lieutenant Maw, believed that cannibalism was forced upon the natives by Portuguese and Brazilian hunters forcing natives away from their traditional food-harvesting areas.
• Eugene Robuchon's diary, edited and published by Carlos Rey de Castro
• Charles C. Eberhadt, likely to have never witnessed any cannibalistic incident, it is probable that he heard all of the information he reported about cannibalism via an employee of Arana's company
• Thomas Whiffen, wrote "The North-West Amazons: Notes of some months spent among cannibal tribes" in 1915, specified that he did not witness any cannibalistic feast.
• Antonio Menacho, relies on hearsay or information that he does not cite.
• Julio Cesar Arana, claimed that he was only in the Putumayo three times by 1913, [that info can be cited via Parliamentary Papers cross examination of Arana] he should not have had any personal information regarding cannibalism.

On the Barbadians

A total of 257 two-year work contracts were signed in a twelve month period after Abel Alarco arrived to Barbados in 1904. Around ninety two Barbadians were employed by Alarco Arana & Co. in February of 1905. Nellice Walker and a number of the others were hired by a Mr. Brewster, who was an emigration agent in Barbados at the time. Some of the contracted men worked at the Nanai plantation for a while. Out of the 257 Barbadians contracted by Arana and Alarco's company, 196 of them ended up in the Putumayo.

"These Indians were not station hands or laborers engaged by the company: they were forest Indian, members of the various tribes dwelling in the districts. They are not asked if they want to work rubber; they are forced to do it, just like slaves. If they do not bring in rubber they are flogged, or put in chains, or in the "cepo" or stocks.

Matanzas / Andokes

There was another Hardenburg deposition that included information regarding Normand, and this was relayed by a man who signed under the name Arthur. This deposition was not included in the 1912 publication of Hardenburg's book.

"This place, along with Abisinia, are those which occur most often in the dreadful record of crime and horror compiled by Hardenburg and Normand's name probably more often that of any other. The Commission and myself have for some time now come to the conclusion that the Hardenburg document is true. The part written by Hardenburg certainly is, and I think many of the declarations too. There are obvious exaggerations and misstatements, and often no doubt actual falsehoods, but on the whole we believe it gives a faithful enough rendering of the class of crime and the evil of the system these men were mixed up in."

DEPONENTS AGAINST NORMAND

ROSO ESPANA - 1907

MARCIAL GORRIES - 1907

GENARO CAPORO - 1909

DONALD FRANCIS - 1911

WESTERMAN LEAVINE - 1910

CLIFFORD QUINTIN - 1910

FREDERICK BISHOP -1910

JOSHUA DYALL - 1910

JAMES LANE - 1910

AUGUSTUS WALCOTT - 1910

STANLEY SEALY - 1910

CHIACHE O ZOY - 1911, concubine of Normand

Roosevelt Andoques cited the cases of abortions forced upon Chiache o Zoy and another indigenous woman named Yjá to support his claim that Normand forced his indigenous concubine to terminate their pregnancies.

Chiache stated that Normand abused her because he had feelings of jealousy, and on one occasion Normand had Chiache placed in chains.

Chiache claimed that Normand had ordered the decapitation of numerous women on the route between La China and Matanzas because these women became tired of walking. She also stated that Normand personally killed, and had ordered his subordinates to kill, the children of women he captured so that they would not slow down Normand's group on the return journey to Matanzas or La China. Chiache stated that these killings were carried out in a variety of methods ranging from decapitation, strangulation, and by swords. In her deposition, she provided the names of several of these children killed by Normand or his subordinates.

Chiache was the sister of Teresa, and she stated that when Normand left the Putumayo region, he took three of her sisters with him as well as two young girls that were unrelated to Chiache.

Chiache stated that Donald Francis had a habit for abusing the imprisoned indigenous women at Matanzas, and Normand knew this as well as tolerated these actions.

Testified to the killing of Munee, wife of an employee named Ruiz. Chiache also stated that the ring fingers of two natives were cut off by Normand because they did not meet the imposed rubber quota.}}

ZOILA ERAZO - 1980, concubine of Normand

LINCOLN ANDOQUES - 1911,

CARUSO MUINANE - 1911,

ROOSEVELT ANDOQUES - 1911,

PABLO ANDOQUES - 1911,

ANTONIO BORAS - 1911, muchacho

WASHINGTON BORAS - 1911,

DEPUES DEL CAUCHO page 238 source for Nero and Caifas being Muchachos de Confianza, subordinate to Normand.

ROOSEVELT ANDOQUES PROVIDES TESTIMONY REGARDING NORMAND KILLING ON TWO SEPERATE OCCASSIONS, FOR SUPPOSEDLY INDULGING IN TOBACCO USE. PABLO ANDOQUES AIDED NORMAND IN ONE OF THESE KILLINGS. JEIVICHE AND CADANEINECO were burned alive by Normand because they attempted to flee. Valcarcel 1915 p80

POINTS TO FOCUS ON FOR THIS ARTICLE

Significance of Matanzas, including distance from Cahuinari River, and Caqueta River.

Population, numbers and nations.

Station with one of the highest number of staff members.

La China, and the "Great Caqueta Rebellion", that affected outpost was unnamed(?)

Other significant criminals, i.e. information on Sanchez, Bustamente, Bucelli, maybe D. Francis.

Indigenous concubines at Matanzas

Food (lack of) at Matanzas

Barbadian duties at Matanzas used as a case study for Casement's report

Attacks against Colombians in the early years

The fact that Matanzas was originally known as the "Andoques" station

Sanchez dismissed for the reports of his abuse against Barbadians, not for his abuse against natives.

Indigenous resistance against Matanzas, including Katenere

Arrest warrants issued against Normand, and presumably other employees of Matanzas. Staff promised to be dismissed by Tizon.

Station active during Paredes investigation in the middle of 1911, but not during the consular commission of 1912 (october?)

There was a road connecting Matanzas to the station of La Sabana.

Roso Espana stated that during the 1907 raid against Urbano Gutierrez, the head of an indigenous child was rammed down into a hole that was intended for a support beam for a house. Corroborated by Westerman Leavine.

^ Leavine was present, as well as Donald Francis

August Walcott met this group on their journey back to Matanzas. Walcott stated that he saw the ten Colombian prisoners however he told Casement that he did not see any indigenous prisoners. Donald Francis, the other Barbadian who took part in the 1907 expedition against Urbano Gutierrez, when questioned by Casement in front of Juan Tizon, Francis stated he only "planted yucca and sugar cane" at Matanzas. Francis later admitted that Victor Macedo had offered him a bribe and threated to have Francis shot if he testified against Macedo, and therefore Casement viewed him as an unreliable witness. Francis worked under Normand for two years and had personal knowledge about Normand's crimes beginning in 1904.

"The duties fulfilled by Barbados men at Matanzas were those that they performed elsewhere throughout the district, and in citing this station as an instance I am illustrating what took place at a dozen or more different centers of rubber collection."

Source for the enslaved natives at Matanzas being Andokes, Muinanes and Manuyas

• Casement estimation that Matanzas is situation around 70 miles away by land from La Chorrera.

"During the last three years the journey from Matanzas to Chorrera has been shortened by the placing of a small launch on the river above the cataract which blocks river navigation at Chorrera." - 1910 - 3 = 1907

^"Rubber from Matanzas still goes under armed escort a distance of 45 or 50 miles through the forest, ..." - Barbadians and white men were the armed escort. Slavery in Peru is citable for this and AJRC, Casement 1911 too probably. ^"all the men still remaining at the time of my visit were employed in guarding or coercing, or in actively maltreating, Indians to force them to work and bring in india rubber to various sections."

"punitive expeditions"

Judicial commission found Matanzas "completely annihilated and almost extinguished".

"Dr Paredes declares that he himself certified to the murder of no less than 1000 people in the actual station house of Andokes or Matanzas - Normand's headquarters. This in no wise represented all the massacres perpetrated by that monster or his section, but only the deaths that Dr. Paredes became convinced of as having taken place in close proximity to the house itself. The bones he says he found in heaps - some in the bed of a stream - others in a deep pit that had been dug to receive them when it was known that I might visit Andokes - and others lined the paths through the forest in certain directions." "The crimes he attributes to Normand are worse even than I realised. He adds, too, that the outraging of children, of even very small children, was frequently practised by these men and that these innocent victims of this atrocious lust were killed or died from the effects of outrages committed upon them.

JOSHUA DYALL provided a list of names regarding the twenty five Barbadians that were sent with him to Matanzas. Dyall was employed with the very first contingent of Barbadians, which was accompanied by Armando Normand. Dyall believed that each man was armed and had received 100 bullet cartridges. Ramon Sanchez was in charge of this group, and the establishment of the Matanzas station.Augustus Walcott stated that sixteen chained natives assisted with the construction of Matanzas in 1904. The "punitive expeditions" and slave raids were ordered by Sanchez, "Gleeman and Cordoba" Cordoba, appears to be José Cordoba, a name appears in Westerman Leavine's deposition regarding the flagellation of Kodihinka and the other natives accompanying him in 1910. This would mean both Leavine and Cordoba were employed at Matanzas for six years. Leavine stated he left La Chorrera on 17 November, 1904 with the contingent that would establish Matanzas.}} shortly after the contingents arrival in the area.

^Gleeman may be Glieman, an Argentinian.

Corroboration source for the first contingent of Barbadians, thirty men and five women, arriving at La Chorrera in November of 1904. "Here they were armed with Winchester rifles and a large supply of cartridges for these weapons,"

When the expedition arrived at the location of Matanzas, there was a single "palm-thatched" indigenous hut. There were eight men assigned as guards throughout the night.

"Then they cut posts and trees and dug holes and built a house, and then they would be sent out with their rifles to look for the Indians and try to catch them. They were ordered by the manager, Senor Sanchez, and by Gleeman and Cordoba, who used to lead them on these expeditions, that if they could not catch the Indians they were to fire on them. Asked why this was done, he said it was to frighten the Indians and make them come in, because if they were killed for running away they would be less likely to run."

^*"On arrival in this region the men were employed at first in building a house, and then on raids through the surrounding forests in order to capture Indians and compel them to come in and work for Senor Sanchez."

See for killings by Ramon Sanchez, reported by Clifford Quintin in 1910.

List relayed by Joshua Dyall, and written by Roger Casement.

• SIEFERT GREENIDGE, NOW THE BAKER HERE IN LA CHORRERA.
• LINDSAY KING (or Armando King), NOW WITH SENOR LOAYZA IN EL ENCANTO. [Implicated in the murder of J. Hernandez of Argelia.]
• LLOYD DOWNS, NOW GONE HOME.
• BUCKEY DOWNS, A YOUNG FELLOW, NOW GONE HOME.
• WESTERMAN LEAVINE, WHO IS STILL IN MATANZAS.
• C. JORDAN AND ANOTHER JORDAN, NOT BROTHERS; BOTH GONE HOME.
• SINCLAIR SMITH, GONE HOME.
• MR. WALTERMANN, A MARRIED DMAN ; GONE HOME.
• ? WOODROFFE, GONE HOME.
• CYRIL ATKINS, "WHO SHOT THE GIRL AND DIED IN PRISON IN IQUITOS"
• ALLEN DAVIS, NOW IN ABISINIA WITH AGUERO
• ? BLADES, GONE HOME.
• AUGUSTUS WALCOT, NOW IN LA SABANA.
• JAMES MAPP, NOW IN LA SABANA.
• MORTIMER, DIED IN ANDOKES. HIS GUN WENT OFF AND SHOT HIM. HE HAD BEEN SHOOTING INDIANS, AND FORGOT TO UNLOAD HIS CARBINE WITH THE MUZZLE UNDER HIS ARM AND WAS SO SHOT.
• ? ROLLESTON, DIED IN ANDOKES(matanzas) FROM SWELLING OF THE LEGS (PROBABLY BERIBERI)
• MR THOMPSON, AN OLD MAN. HE DIED IN ANDOKES. HE WAS DROWNED IN THE CAQUETA RIVER.
• ANOTHER YOUNG MAN, BUT HE CAN NOT REMEMBER HIS NAME. WILL TRY TO RECALL IT.
• ANOTHER YOUNG MAN, WHO CAME FROM ST. VINCENT, CAN NOT REMEMBER HIS NAME. HE SHOT A MAN UP THERE-BY ACCIDENT THEY SAID.
• JAMES PERCY, GONE HOME, BUT NEARLY DIED THERE[Matanzas?]. HE WAS HUNG UP BY HIS HANDS BY NORMAND AND SANCHEZ. HIS HANDS WERE NEARLY USELESS AFTERWARDS.
• SIDNEY MORRIS, NOW IN LA SABANA
• ? ROCK, GONE HOME.
• ? MYERS, GONE HOME.

Near the end of 1904 or the beginning of 1905, Augustus Walcott was physically abused by Armando Normand. Normand had Walcott "hung up by his arms tied behind his back for a very long time, and beaten with swords or machetes." Clifford Quintin was also abused by Normand in roughly the same manner as Walcott, however Quintin received fifty lashes. The scarring from this flagellation was shown to Roger Casement in 1910. Another Barbadian named Percy, or James Francis was also tied up and flogged by swords under Sanchez's orders, however there is very little information regarding that incident.

Sidney Morris was at Andokes for three or four months until he became ill. He was employed there on correrias, and stated that while he did not flog natives there, he witnessed a number of flagellations. Morris stated that Normand would administer the first couple of lashes before handing the whip to another employee to continue the punishment. "They [the natives] were flogged badly, men and women and children. He saw a boy, a small boy, flogged to death..." Morris stated some of the indigenous men who were flogged at Matanzas also perished from their wounds. He also witnessed the shooting of multiple natives, and the immolation, then shooting of one native man that Normand had caught. Morris reported that he knew of another native that Normand had ordered to be executed by burning to death. Morris stated that while he didn't witness this killing, he heard Normand give the order and he also saw the Muchachos de Confianza making preparations for the fire. Morris left Matanzas in May of 1906, and returned in May of 1909 after four Peruvian Amazon Company employees had been killed by rebellious muchachos de confianzas. He stayed in the area for two months hunting down the natives that had killed the caucheros and taken their weapons. Morris's deposition stated that two of the muchachos were caught, and later one of them escaped while the other was flogged and died from his wounds.

"The testimony of these men, much of which will be found attached to this report in the copies of depositions or statements made to me during the course of my inquiry, was of the most atrocious description. Not only did they accuse Sanchez and Normand of dreadful acts of cruelty, but they also in more than one instance charged themselves with crimes that were revolting in the extreme, The excuse put forward for these initial attacks on the Indians in the first coming of the Barbados men was that the Indians had massacred Colombian rubber workers and appropriated their rifles."

"I have pointed out to the Representative of the company that I consider the men have been grossly charged for the necessaries they had to buy - and further that I think they have often been gravely mistreated, and illegally employed - that is all" - Roger Casement

In 1910 Normand claimed that the natives at his station had not been punished by flagellation for two years.

The 1910 Fabrico brought in by Normand's station yielded around 8 tons of rubber and was delivered by around 200 natives from Matanzas.

"The crimes alleged against this man, dating from the end of the year 1904 up to the month of October 1910, when I found him in charge of this station of Matanzas or Adnokes, seem well-nigh incredible. They included innumerable murders and tortures of defenceless Indians - pouring kerosene oil on men and women and then setting fire to them; burning men at the stake; dashing the brains out of children, and again and again cutting off the arms and legs of Indians and leaving them to speedy death in this agony. These charges were not made to me alone by Barbados men who had served under Normand, but by some of his fellow 'racionales.' A Peruvian engineer in the company's service vouched to me for the dashing out of the brains of children..." Westerman Leavine confessed that he saw natives burned alive more than once and he had often witnessed Normand's dog's gnawing at the limbs of the dead.

See for forced march witnessed by Casement. Casement believed that some of the loads reached up to 70kg.

forced march delivered by around 200 Boras and Andoke natives. including men women and children. Two day march between Entre Rios and Matanzas. No food provided for the return joruney

"We found, on our own subsequent journey down to Puerto Peruano, a few days later, many traces of where they had pulled down branches and even trees themselves in their search for something to stay the craving of hunger. In some places the path was blocked with the branches and creepers they had torn down in their search for food, and it was only when Senors Tizon and O'Donnell assured me that this was done by 'Senor Normand's Indians' in their hungry desperation that I could believe it was not the work of wild animals.

Normand is mentioned as travelling into the Caqueta area with Aguero's rebellious group.

"I have asked a friend at home to try and get a photo of Armando Normand to send to you. If you get it you might send it to Buenos Aires to try and have him traced there. He has probably changed his name."

Normand was reported as being in Mendoza, Argentina in October of 1911.

"He [Macedo] is said to have gone up to the Acre territory of Brazil along with the atrocious murderer Armando Normand who was said to have gone to Argentina. My informant in Manaos declares that he saw Macedo and Normand together and that he is assured they left the town together ostensibly for the Acre district. He adds that several others pf the accused men, some of them of very evil reputation were with Macedo and Normand and he thinks all may be bound, in reality, for the Putumayo."

"such was the power that these men wielded that, in order to possess women who had pleased Indian chiefs, they often went the length of committing murder. As an example of this type may be cited a certain Armando Normand, who murdered four of his women from jealousy, first torturing them in the most cowardly and infamous manner."

Jose Cordoba.

"Senor Normand lives, 10 hours from Matanzas- it is nearer to the Boras country. The rubber from La China comes here carried by the Indians, and then they carry it on down through the forest to Puerto Peruano, where it is shipped in the launch for La Chorrera."

Ultimo Retiro

Located on the Upper Igaraparana River.

Casa Larranaga established the settlement of Ultimo Retiro.

There was a road connecting Ultimo Retiro to Puerto de los Monos, which is located on the Caqueta River. Around 1910 there was a Peruvian army garrison stationed at Puerto de los Monos. The location of Monos is at the confluence of the Cuemañí River and the Caqueta.

Juan Bautista Vega was involved in suppressing a rebellion at Ultimo Retiro. "manifestando que Vega Habia tenido en el Putumayo un cañoncito y muchos rifles Manlicher para asesinar a los indios de la seccion Ultimo Retiro.

Chirif's information, and Victor Macedo's deposition included in El Proceso, claim that the rebellion at Ultimo Retiro, which Chirif's info dates to around 1905, was instigated by Gregorio Calderon. Chirif claims that £70,000 was paid out to Calderon in order to settle the conflict. Arana's examination by the Parlimentary committee in 1913 claimed that Arana paid Calderon 70,000 on July 2nd, 1905, releasing Calderon from a debt owed to Arana and also forming a company with Calderon. Page 614 Parliamentary Papers Volume 14 1913.

Ultimo Retiro was managed by Jose Inocente Fonseca in 1906, Alfredo Montt prior to 1910, and Augusto Jimenez Seminario in 1910.

Entre Rios

Located on the Tueras tributary of the Igaraparana River. Station is close to the source of the Cahuinari River, and Robuchon's map claims that the distance from Entre Rios to Atenas, on the Cahuinari River, is a six hour march.

There was a road connecting Entre Rios to the station of Atenas.

Elias Martinengui managed Entre Rios for one fabrico period before Andres O'Donnell assumed that role.

Atenas

Located on the Upper Cahuinari River.

"At Atenas for instance, the station houses are built on a slope above the river Cahuinari, and an area of fully 200 acres has been cleared of its original forest trees."

There was a road connecting Atenas to La Sabana.

"Atenas, 12 hours distant from La Chorrera..."

Prior to his capture by Normand & Co. in 1907, Aquileo Torres managed to secure Elias Martinengui as a prisoner. [OR] this most likely occurred after the 2nd conflict between Casa Arana & Casa Calderon around Ultimo Retiro.

"Asked again as to the cause of the starving condition of the Indians at Atenas when he passed through recently, he said it was due to Elias Martinengui alone, who had driven them too hard to get rubber so that he might have a big 'commission' to go to Lima with. This same MArtinengui, Bishop said, was a brute, and he then related an incident he had been an eyewitness of." See Slavery in Peru 1913 page 297.

SEE HARDENBURG 1912 P 258-260, DEPOSITION. SHOULD RELATE TO EARLY CRIMES BY MARTINENGUI, PRIOR TO 1903 SEPTEMBER MASSACRE @ CHORRERA.

"About eight days after this occurrence Martinengui ordered a commission to set out for the houses of some neighbouring Indians and exterminate them, with their women and children, as they had not brought in the amount of rubber that he had ordered. This order was strictly carried out, for the commission returned in four days, bringing along with them fingers, ears, and several heads of the unfortunate victims to prove to the chief that they had carried out his orders."

^ Deposition also provides an eyewitness account of 1903 chorrera massacre. - Paternoster statement: "From the latter statement it would seem that Victor Macedo, the then local chief, was in no way better than his subordinates. Of later years, however, there is little evidence that Macedo slaughtered Indians either singly or in battalions. Martinengui, on the other hand, sank deeper and deeper into crime, as the following statement by Senor Reuben Pizarro of Iquitos will show" - 169 Paternoster

blockquote:

"Martinengui orders the Indians to deliver every twelve days from fifty to sixty kilos of rubber, but as this rubber region is almost exhausted on account of the too frequent bleedings of the trees, and the unsuitable character of the soil, the unfortunate Indians sometimes lack one or two kilos. This is a sufficient reason to flagellate them most cruelly with huge lashes of tapir skin, and if the Indians moan or quiver with the agony the employees kick them and hit them about the head with clubs. These punishments are inflicted without distinction upon men, women, and children, from seven years upwards. If any of them, throguh fear of the lash, do not bend down or lie flat on the ground in the form of a cross the employees grasp them and dash them against the ground like balls. In this operation many children are killed." -Paternoster 171

cont.

"If any Indians fail to assemble, the employees set out in pursuit of them, with the order to bring back their heads, which they do, wrapped up in palm leaves. When i first saw them I thought they were fruits, but what was my horror to find that they were human heads. For all these crimes the chiefs each have a band of from twelve to twenty 'boys' of tribes hostile to the ones of which they are in charge."

"This said Martinengui also enforces the custom not to let any Indian widow take another husband. The penalty of doing so is death or hanging up, suspended by a cord attached to the wrist. This rule is enforced in order to make the woman produce the same amount of rubber that he deceased husband had been obliged to obtain. In addition to this, he compels children of both sexes of seven years and over to do the same work, with the same rigorous punishment, and on his lists these children are put down as adults. Then he boasts than on his lists the Indians are not diminishing." Paternoster p172

deposition then describes the further abuse of a mutilated indigenous man, brother of a cacique. The man was flogged until he "evacuated all over the place. His excrement he was forced to eat by threats of the revolver and the lash."

"Another time he ordered an Indian girl about eight or ten years of age to be brought in to satisfy his animal instincts, and upon her arrival he examined her to see if she were a virgin. Thi not being the case he punished her most cruelly, and the floor and the lash being soiled she was forced to perform the same revolting act as the captain." - Deponent

^" As regards this incident, it is corroborated definitely by F. Bishop, a Barbadian who was an eye-witness of the scene."

Martinengui decapitated three natives who claimed that they were shamans, and had the ability to transform into tigers. Valcarcel, 1915 p52. Heads were put on display in the section house.

See AJRC P276-277, details case of Martinengui forcing a married woman to become his concubine. The husband later refused to work; muchachos de confianza were sent to chastise him and he disappeared afterwards. Barbadian deponent believed that the male victim was murdered due to the fact that Martinengui offered the man a different indigenous "girl" and after the man's disappearance the "girl" became part of Martinengui's harem at Atenas.

See Paternoster 173 for Bishop's deposition regarding Martinengui's abuse of a woman who had a veneral disease.

Paternoster 174, Barbadian deponent noted that Martinengui ordered the decapitation of two indigenous people that ran away "because they did not want to work." - "This he saw with his own eyes, but it was long ago" "It was done in section Urani-a section that now no longer exist."

"Elias Martinengui was chief of Atenas up to May or June of 1910, when he retired from the company's service, and is said to have gone to Lima with his gains. The charges against him are many" - Slavery in Peru p219

SIDNEY PATERNOSTER dedicated a chapter of THE LORDS OF THE DEVILS PARADISE to "THE BLOOD LUST OF MONTT AND MARTINENGUI"

"ALFREDO MONTT and Elias Martinengui have both been in charge of the section Atenas, and there is little to choose between them. Both are Peruvians, and there is no excuse for their not having been put on trial for their crimes."

"If one compares Montt's deeds at Ultimo Retiro with those of Elias Martinengui at Atenas, where Montt succeeded him in command, Montt would appear to be but a beginner in murder." - Paternoster p167

La Sabana

Located on the Middle Cahuinari River.

There was a road connecting La Sabana to the station of Matanzas.

Santa Catalina

"Santa Catalina, on the borders of the Boras country."

According to Consul Eberhardts information, there were 800 natives dedicated to the extraction of rubber at the Santa Catalina station, and 17 agents.

^13 agents in 1910

"I stopped to examine the curious tribe of the Rezigaros, who occupy the left side of teh road between said sections and extend to one day's journey before reaching the Caqueta on that side. I passed one night among them, and had an opportunity to see all of them, for they did not amount to 30 in number" - Minister Pezet 1912

"Finally come the Boras, who are the Indians occupying the largest territory. They inhabit from the Cahuinari to one day's journey from Santa Catalina, embracing two-thirds of said river, the Putumayo and the Igaraparana..."

^ "They had frequently resisted, sometimes with success, and on more than one occassion had killed individuals and even numerous parties of the vegetable filibusters. By 1908, however, they had been largely reduced to obedience, or had taken refuge in flight, and at the stations of Santa Catalina and Abisinia the survivors were working under strict compulsion to produce enough rubber to satisfy the agents of the-company in charge of those stations."

"Both these stations lie in the Boras country, La Sabana actually on the Cahuinari River, and Santa Catalina not far from it.

^wholesale murder and torture quote + source for rodriguez brothers getting control over their districts and 50% commission of profits.

"That of the Boras (more than 100 Indians murdered in their wigwams on the other side of the Cahuinari, opposite the Santa Catalina section); and, finally that against 35 Indians in the vicinity of the Pama, who were decapitated in a single night, and to which reference is made in the denunciation of the Government prosecutor, Dr. Salvador Cavero."

"Santa Catalina, 24 hours from La Chorrera..."

Abisinia

Located near the Avio Parana River, a tributary of the Cahuinari River.

There was a road connecting "P. Huarumes" to Abisinia, and Huarumes to Oriente. It appears that the steamship Audaz was transported from P. Huarumes to the Avio Parana in order to establish a steamship service on the Cahuinari River.

The Audaz Steamship travelled along the Avio Parana and Pama tributaries of the Cahuinari, and along the Cahuinari itself.

See Paternoster pages 136-137 for a description of the flagellation method employed at Abisinia as described by Evelyn Batson. This was a method used against both men and boys. Batson stated that the natives were flogged this way because they either brought in an unsatisfactory amount of rubber to the station employees, or the natives did not arrive at a designated time.

Batson stated that women were flogged if their children did not bring in enough rubber as well. When Casement asked Batson if he had witnessed Aguero kill any natives, he replied no, "but I have seen him send muchachos to kill Indians. He has taken an Indian man and gave him to the muchachos to eat, and they have a dance off it."

"To go back to an earlier period, it would seem that the Barbadians who were at Abisinia chiefly engaged in slave-raiding. When James Mapp was there in 1905, there were twenty-one of them engaged in this business under Aguero's orders. Mapp stated that many Indians were caught - men,women, and children - chiefly Boras Indians. They were tied up and brought into the station. Many that refused to come, or did not want to come in, were killed. He had seen so many killed there that he can't remember all of them. He had seen men, women, and children killed - killed for no reason at all except that they would not work rubber. Some were shot, some were beheaded with a machete. He had seen women and children beheaded and had seen the little babies taken from their mothers and 'thrown away alive.'"

Morelia

Outpost of Abisinia. Located on the Lower Cahuinari River, near it's confluence with the Avio Parana River.

Palmera

Located on the Pama River, near its confluence with the Cahuinari River.

Outpost for Abisinia. The Jamaican James Chase was listed as a staff member of Palmera in 1910.

Santa Julia

Port for Abisinia's rubber. Located near the Igaraparana River.

Santa Julia had a road which connected the station to the Cahuinari River.

Indostan

According to the author of En el Putumayo y sus afluentes, Indostan was abandoned at the time of the observers journey because the employees feared that the indigenous people could attack at any moment. The employees at Indostan fled to Medio Dia.

There was a road connecting Indostan to rubber stations on the Cahuinari River. Santa Julia also had a road that connected the station to the Cahuinari River.

Occidente

Fidel Velarde, 2 soles per arroba and 7% commission on station's revenue in 1910.

Oriente

Luis Alcorta, 2 soles per arroba and 7% commission on station's revenue in 1910.

Sur

Caption text

Station name	Manager(s)	Location	Natives	Notes
La Chorrera	*Victor Macedo 1903-1911	Middle Igaraparaná River	Huitoto
Oriente	*Ursenio Bucelli 1903-? *Luis Alcorta ?- 1910	River Fititas, tributary of the Igaraparaná River	Ocaina
Sur	*Carlos Miranda ?-1911	South-west of La Chorrera	Huitoto
Occidente	*Fidel Velarde	Near the Upper Igaraparaná River	Huitoto	Example
Entre Rios	*Andrés O'Donnell 1903-1911	Along R. Tueras, a tributary of the Upper Igaraparaná River	Huitoto + Boras	Example
Ultimo Retiro	*Jose Inocente Fonseca 1906 *Alfredo Montt ?-? *Augusto Jimenez 1910-1911	Upper Igaraparaná River	Huitoto
Atenas	*Elias Martinengui 1903-1910 Alfredo Montt ?-?	Upper Cahuinari River	Huitoto	Example
La Sabana	*Aristides Rodriguez 1903-1909[?] *Jose Inocente Fonseca	Near the Middle Cahuinari River	Boras + Recigaros	Example
Santa Catalina	Aurelio Rodriguez	In land, between Abissinia and Sabana.	Boras + Recigaros
Abissinia	Abelardo Aguero (1903-1911) Augusto Jimenez (2ic)	In land station, near the Avio Parana River, a tributary of the Lower Cahuinari River.	Boras	Example
Matanzas	Armando Normand (1905-1911)	In land station, close to the Caqueta River and a tributary named Nocaimani.	Andoque + Boras + Muinane + Manuyas	Example
El Encanto	Miguel S. Loayza	Lower Caraparaná River	Huitotos + Yabuyano + Nonuyas

"The total armed force engaged in coercing the Indians in the 10 sections might therefore be put at 100 'blancos,' or 'racionales' of whom 15 were Barbados men at the time I visited the country, and possibly 200 armed 'muchachos' with a reserve force of from 20 to 30 'blancos' and plenty of guns and ammunition available at La Chorrera."

Recigaros people live between La Sabana and Santa Catalina.

Muinanes and Manuyas live in the areas between Atenas, Entre Rios, La Sabana, and Matanzas.

"These foreman, together with their assistants, all of whom are armed, number approximately 200, and they have control, by 'rule of the rifle,' over 10,000 Indians- men, women and children, principally of the Huitoto, Bora, Ocaino, and Andoque Tribes..."

Replacement managers

Station name	Manager
Sur	Jose Plaza
Occidente	Manuel Torrico
Matanzas	Cesar Bustamente
Entre Rios	Remigio Vega
Atenas	Garese ?
Sabana	Vazquez Torres
Santa Catalina	? Solar
Abissinia	Carlos Seminario

^Same list also found in Chirif 1991 page 136

Caption text

Name of section.	Number of foremen	Number of assistants.	Number(approximate).	Names of Indians
Ultimo Retiro	1	14	650	Huitotos
Entre Rios	1	14	650	Do.
Occidente	1	6	700	Do.
Sur	1	4	300	Do.
Atenas	1	8	600	Do.
Oriente	1	8	500	Ocainos.
Savana	1	12	1,000	Boras.
Matanzas	1	18	5,000	Andoques.
Abysinia Morelia	1	35	1,600	Boras
El Pama Santa Catalina	1	17	800	Do.

Provided by Charles C. Eberhardt in 1907.

Caption text

Header text	Header text
Angoteros	1,000
Macaguajes y Coreguajes	500
Huitotas del Caraparaná, que trabajan con Calderon, Arana y C*	3,500

Trabajan con Arana, Vega y C*

Header text	Header text
Huitotas, del Igaraparaná	4,000
Ocainas	300
Fititas	150
Nernuígaros	150
Muinanes	800
Nonuyas	200
Boras	3,000
Total	13,603

Information provided by Hildebrando Fuentes, 1908 "Loreto; apuntes geográficos, históricos, estadísticos, políticos y sociales" page 114.

Barbadian depositions

Interviewed by Roger Casement

Name and statement number	Date of arrival to Putumayo	Description of employment	Further notes
Frederick Bishop - No. 1	End of April or beginning of May, 1905. In the Putumayo for five years and three months.
Nellice or Nellis Walker - No. 2	24 July, 1907		Example
Norman Walcott - No. 3			Example
Preston Ford - No. 4	Example	Example	Example
Joseph Jones - No. 5	Example	Example	Example
Joseph Labadie - No. 6	1906 or 1907		Example
Adolphus Gibbs - No. 7	Sometime in 1908	Example	Example
Stanley S. Lewis - No. 8	Example	Example	Example
James Clark - No. 9	Example	Example	Example
Donald Francis - No. 10	After 6th of May 1905	Example
Phillip Lawrence - No. 11
Siefert Greenidge - No. 12	1904	Example	Claimed to be stationed at La Chorrera during the majority of his employment. Stated he only left Chorrera once and that was on the expedition to establish Matanzas in 1904.}}
James Chase - No. 13	1904	Example
Stanley Sealy - No. 14	1905	Example
Joshua Dyall - No. 15	1904	Example
Edward Crichlow - No. 16	Example		Example
James Lane - No. 17	Example	Example	Example
Westerman Leavine - No. 18	Example	Example
Evelyn Batson - No. 19	Example	Example	Example
Sydney Morris - No. 20	Example	Example	Example
Preston Johnson - No. 21	Example	Example
Augustus Walcott - No. 22	Example	Example
James Mapp - No. 23	Example	Example	}}
Alfred Hoyte - No. 24	Example	Example	Example
Reuben Phillips - No. 25	Example	Example	Example
Clifford Quintyne - No. 26	Example	Example	Example
Allen Davis - No. 27	Example	Example
Joseph Minggs - No. 28	Example	Example
Armando King - No. 29	Example	Example	See Casement 1911 p 641-62, King received a "special gratification" of 200 Peruvian soles, equal to 20 British Lb at the time.
John Brown - No. 30	Example	Example	Example

The contract

Service Contract.

Concluded the 27th day of Septebmer, 1904, between Senor Abel Alarco, of Putumayo (Igaraparana), Peru, South American, as employer and Seiffert Greenidge, laborer, 20 years.

Said Senor Abel Alarco, per S. E. Brewster, emigration agent in Barbados, declares himself willing to receive said laborer at Putumayo (Igaraparana), Peru, South America, as a general laborer for a term of two years, work to commence the day after arrival at the above-mentioned place, and to cease upon the completion of two years. In consideration of a free passage, both ways, of a loan of £2 1s. 8d. here and wages in cash at any rate of £2 1s. 8d. equal to gold paid monthly; with free food daily, namely tea or coffee, breakfast and dinner, free doctor, and medicine, also free lodgings.

The said laborer binds himself to serve his employer faithfully and obediently during the term 'aforesaid.

The parties have agreed that the working days shall be six per week, and that the working hours shall be as follows, daily : The work to commence at 7 o'clock a. m., and to cease at sunset, with one hour allowed for breakfast and one for dinner.

And the said Senor Alarco (employer), through S.E. Brewster, emigration agent in Barbados, agrees that the said above-named laborer shall not during his contract be left destitute in the place to which he is going, and on the termination of this contract of service (should the said above-named laborer desire to be repatriated) he shall give notice of his desire to be repatriated, and then his employer shall repatriate him by paying his passage back to Barbados. The advance of £2 1s. 8., or any portion thereof, desired by the laborer herein mentioned, may be paid here, and the amount so paid to be refunded by the laborer at the rate of 4s. 2d. per month.

I agree to the above on behalf of Senor Abel Alarco (employer)

S.E. Brewster, Government Emigration Agent

In consideration of the foregoing terms, and the money advanced me, I agree to serve my employer faithfully and obediently, and declare that any claim on my part whatever becomes null and void if I break this contract. I acknowledge receipt of $10 advanced me in Barbados. I will confirm this contract if required before any legal authority at the place of my destination herein mentioned.

Seiffert (his x mark) Greenidge, Laborer

"I certify this to be a true and faithful copy of the original contract produced to me this 30th day of October, 1910, by the above-mentioned Sieffert Greenidge, at La Chorrera, made by me and compared with the original by me." Roger Casement. His Majesty's Consul General.

Bonification offered by Macedo to the Barbadians

"The men all accepted the bonificación and I suggested they should thank Tizon and Macedo. There was a fair amount of chicanery all around, from which (I am sorry to say) not even Tizon was exempted. For instance the a/cs of the men are closed on 31st October, whereas most of them have been working up to-day. E. Batson, J. Minggs, and Crichlow have all been at work on the launches and at Ultimo Retiro and most of the others have been bringing the rubber over from Victoria. They are all done out of half a month's pay - right off the reel... My attitude was one of strict aloofness. I explained to the men that (with Bishop first) they had no 'legal' claim, as they had bought these things at the outrageous prices charged, with their eyes open, that is to say they knew they were being swindled. The local representative of the company made them a free offer of 1/4 of these prices, and it lay with them to accept or not as they pleased. The men knew that their chances of obtaining more was remote and they accepted - and so, as far as they are concerned, the matter ends. But it certainly does not end, so far as the prices charged them is concerned. Sydney Morris already had his cheque in his hand for the balance before he appeared in the room. What a method! Before this examination of the men to see if they wanted this settlement, they had actually tampered with the weaklings by giving them the cheque of an a/c that was already sub judice. Tizon has sunk to-day in my estimation - pretty low. They have been systemically swindled for years, grossly, maltreated and converted into criminals in order that this criminal association of footpads and vagabonds might grow rich by murdering and robbing the Indians and swindling their less guilty employés." -Roger Casement, November 14th 1910, written at La Chorrera.

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"Border skirmishes, counterinsurgency efforts, and the demands of drug interdiction have promoted leva (forcible recruitment) and servicio militar obligatorio (Complusory military service) in Peru. Military recruiters regulary implemnt the leva, particularly when the recruitment goals are not met due to draft evasion and absenteeism (Gonzalez-Cueva, 2000, 89). The contrast between the universal nature of conscription and its unfair application demonstrates the state's active support of coercive social distinctions. Reinforcing the notion that the Peruvian state is the legitimate monopolizer of violence, the leva disciplines citizen subjects by defining certain groups-like indigenous peoples- as hazardous to social order. Those young men unable to produce their military cards (libretas militares) are forced to serve in the military (Dead 1999b). Conscription is a publicly acknowledged sign of inequity: everyone knows those lacking contacts or financial means must serve. Most indigneous peoples in rural Amazonia lack basic indientiy documents, such as birth cerificates, military service cards, and voter regirstration papers that normally would certify them as full-fledghed citizens-albeit notwithstanding all the ambiguities of citizenship such national documents imply (Anderson 2000; Gray 1997, 68.)

"The Rubber Articles"

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Article	Region	Notes
Rubber	Amazon River Basin	Example
Rubber boom	Amazon River Basin	Example
Julio César Arana	Putumayo River	Example
*Benjamin Saldaña Rocca	Iquitos	Example
Peruvian Amazon Company	Putumayo	Example
*Miguel S. Loayza	Caraparana River	Example
*Victor Macedo	Igaraparana River	Example
*Andrés O'Donnell	Upper Igaraparana River	Example
*Armando Normand	Right bank of Caqueta River	Example
*Augusto Jiménez Seminario	Cahuinari, later Upper Igaraparana	Example
Aurelio and Arístides Rodríguez
Nicolás Suárez Callaú	Madre de Dios	Example
Carlos Fitzcarrald	Madre de Dios	Example
*Carlos Scharff	Purus River and later Rio de Las Piedras	Example
Sir John Lister-Kaye, 3rd Baronet	Example
Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington	Example
Sir John Lister-Kaye, 3rd Baronet	Example
Wallace Hardison	Example
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Arrest Warrants

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Simon Angulo	Example
Ursenio Bucelli	Example
Rafael Cuervo	Example
Celio Silva	Example
Rosendo Torres	Example
Andrés O'Donnell	Example
Enrique Zavala y Zavala	Example
Alfredo Montt	Example
Rafael Larrañaga	Example
Rafael Calderón	Example
Jose Inocente Fonseca	Example
Daniel Angulo	Example
Elias Martinengui	Example
Armando Normand	Example	Example
Augusto Jimenez Seminario	Example	Example
Abelardo Aguero	Example	Example
Armando Blondel	Example	Example
Miguel Flores	Example	Example
Carlos Miranda	Example	Example
Emilio Mozambite	Example	Example
Juan Sifuentes	Example	Example
Augustin Pena	Example	Example
Juan Quevedo	Example	Example
Manuel Vargas	Example	Example
Visitación Melendez	Example	Example
Alpino Lopez	Example	Example
Homero Rodriguez	Example	Example
Aurelio Rodriguez	Example	Example
Santiago Portcoarrero	Example	Example
Rafael Guerero	Example	Example
Tomás Vela (alias Tomacho)	Example
Angel Enrique	Example
Aparicio Cuéllar	Example
Severiano Lezcano	Example
N. Risco	Example
Enrique Zavala	Example
Donald Francis	July 29, 1911	Example
Luis Alcorta	July 29, 1911
Singer King	July 29, 1911	Murder of Justino Hernandez
Gregorio Oliveros	July 29, 1911	Murder of Justino Hernandez
Belisario Suarez	July 29, 1911	Murder of Justino Hernandez
Victor Macedo	July 29, 1911	Example
Martin Arana	July 29, 1911	Example
Pablo Zumaeta	July 29, 1911	Example

August 28 of 1911, the court of Iquitos revoked the arrest warrant against Zumaeta, issued by Paredes, and reiterated the arrest warrants against several other individuals that Paredes pursued.

"In 1911, Judge Valcárcel worked together with Judge Rómulo Paredes. When the Judge Valcárcel returned to Iquitos in 1913, he ordered the arrest of Arana and Pablo Zumaeta, one of his brothers-in-law. Zumaeta was dully detained but Arana was not. Zumaeta was later released. Valcárcel and Paredes were allies in their attempts to have those who were responsible for the atrocities arrested and punished.}}

"Don Pablo Zumaeta, of the extinct firm 'Arana, Vega y Compania', and currently the 'Peruvian Amazon Company' and the criminals indicated above having depended on those companies, and still providing many of them serving in said region to the last, Zumaeta has allowed those criminals to remain in their position, despite knowing that they were, since not only have those crimes been reported in the press, but they have been the subject of a trial, since nineteen hundred and seven, that Zumaeta, having the supervision of all employees in the Putumayo region, has had to know the means they used in the exploitation of elastic rubber; that consequently, Zumaeta has allowed the aforementioned criminals to take advantage of the effects of their crime, which has given rise, on the other hand, to such criminals committing successive crimes for a long time; that therefore there is merit for the arrest of Zumaeta..."

"We tend to represent the Indians as victims of the violent rubber barons. he dispute among Whites is whether those Indians were ferocious cannibals running in the forest who had to be subjected by any means to become an industrious and civilised labour force, as Casa Arana alleged, or whether they were noble and paciic people enslaved and abused by ‘an association of vagabonds, the scum of Peru and Colombia’, as Casement claimed in his journal (Goodman 2009: 111). In both cases, Indians are represented as a single, unified subject. But, how was it from an Indian perspective? Certain Indian tribes, and clans and lineages within tribes, profited from the alliance with rubber barons to wage warfare against other tribes and former enemies. Besides, young boys from several tribes were raised and trained to raid other groups and to act as executioners of the worst crimes. his exacerbation of internal warfare had more devastating and long-lasting effects than the violence of Whites against Indians. Whites or non-Indians would eventually leave the region, but the families and relatives of the murderers and the murdered would stay, and with those the memories of pending reven—ges." -Juan Alvaro Echeverri 2011 p15-16

https://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/bitstream/2445/107680/1/552894.pdf <- Citation for Valcarcel issuing Arana's arrest warrant on December 10, 1912. Page 112 of document, that source also describes the relationship of Julio Ego-Aguierre, Miguel A. Rojas and Carlos Rey de Castro had with Arana. Source cites Valcarcel 1915 pages 278-280. Pamphlets called for the capture and even the death of Valcarcel after he ordered Arana's arrest. This is an important document and should be revisited + further cited on sandbox.

References

Bibliography

• Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Goodman, Jordan (2009). The Devil and Mr. Casement: One Man's Battle for Human Rights in South America's Heart of Darkness (First American Edition 2010 ed.). Putumayo: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0374138400. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
• Casement, Roger (1997). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Anaconda Editions. ISBN 1901990052.
• Valcárcel, Carlos (1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. Peru / Colombia: The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
• Slavery in Peru: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report of the Secretary of State, with Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Alleged Existence of Slavery in Peru. United States. Department of State. 1913. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
• Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & co., 1913.
• Capelo, Joaquín (1900). Razon general de precios y datos comerciales de la plaza de Iquitos. pp. 29–30, 35.
• Madge, Nicolas J. (2023). "Infernal Tambopata. British Involvement in Twentieth Century Slavery in Peru and Bolivia". Revista de Historia de América. 165.
• Grant, Rena (1963). Three men from Aroostook; the story of the Hardison family. Berkeley, Calif.
• Fifer, Valerie (November 1970). "The Empire Builders: A History of the Bolivian Rubber Boom and the Rise of the House of Suarez". Journal of Latin American Studies. 2 (38).
• Taussig, Michael (2008). Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226790114.
• Rocha, Joaquín (1905). Memorandum de viaje: (regiones amazonicas). Casa editorial de "El Mercurio," G. Forero Franco, propietario.
• Vallve, Frederic. "THE IMPACT OF THE RUBBER BOOM ON THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF THE BOLIVIAN LOWLANDS (1850-1920)" (PDF). repository.library.georgetown.edu. Georgetown University.
• Fuller, Stuart. "PAPERS RELATING TO THE FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH THE ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT TO CONGRESS DECEMBER 2, 1913". history.state.gov. U.S. State Department.
• House of Commons (1913). Parliamentary Papers, Volume 14. H.M. Stationery Office.
• Robuchon, Eugène (1907). En el Putumayo y sus afluentes. Imprenta La industria. ISBN 5880223094.
• Gray, Andrew (1996). The Arakmbut-- mythology, Spirituality and History. Berghahn Books.
• Reyna, Ernesto (1942). Fitzcarrald, el rey del caucho. P. Barrantes C., 1942.
• Almanaque de Loreto 2001-2002. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Oficina Departamental de Estadística e Informática Loreto. 2001.
• FERNANDA DELGADO HERNÁNDEZ, MARÍA (2015). ""MISIONEROS, INDÍGENAS Y CAUCHEROS - HEGEMONÍA Y NEGOCIACIONES EN EL ALTO PUTUMAYO DURANTE EL CICLO CAUCHERO (1903-1908)"". repositorio.flacsoandes.edu.ec (in Spanish). FACULTAD LATINOAMERICANA DE CIENCIAS SOCIALES SEDE ECUADOR.
• Santos Granero, Fernando; Barclay, Frederica (2000). Tamed Frontiers Economy, Society, And Civil Rights In Upper Amazonia. Avalon Publishing.
• Piedrafita Iglesias, Marcelo (2008). Os Kaxinawá de Felizardo: correrias, trabalho e civilização no Alto Juruá. Nacional, da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
• Gow, Peter (2006). ""Purús Song": Nationalization and Tribalization in Southwestern Amazonia". Tipiti : Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America. 4 (1).
• Normand, Armando; Macqueen, Peter (September 1913). "A Criminals Life Story The Career of Armando Normand by Peter Macqueen". THE NATIONAL MAGAZINE, AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY Volume XXXVIII: April to September, 1913. 38 (38): 942. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
• Collier, Richard (1968). The River that God Forgot : The Story of the Amazon Rubber Boom. Dutton.
• Tâmega Fernandes, Felipe (2009). Institutions, Geography and Market Power: the Political Economy of Rubber in the Brazilian Amazon (Thesis). London School of Economics and Political Science.
• Casement, Roger (2003). Mitchell, Angus (ed.). Sir Roger Casement's Heart of Darkness: The 1911 Documents. Irish Manuscripts Commission. ISBN 9781874280989.
• Dean, Bartholomew (1994). "Multiple Regimes of Value: Unequal Exchange and the Circulation of Urarina Palm-Fiber Wealth". Museum Anthropology. {{cite journal}}: horizontal tab character in |journal= at position 7 (help)
• Olarte Camacho, Vicente (1911). Las crueldades en el Putumayo y en el Caquetá. Imprenta Eléctrica,.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• Tribunal Arbitral Brasileiro-Peruano (1916). Reclamações: sentenças (1-91) (Report). Imprensa nacional.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)