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Application of Social Learning Theory in Education

Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) has a range of applications for promoting learning, including that within educational settings, through the processes such as role modelling and vicarious reinforcement. Research has investigated how the principles of social learning can be used in both classroom settings and within web-based learning environments (WBLEs). One of the most influential processes in social learning is role modelling, which is indicated by much of the research, leading to vicarious reinforcement and internalisation of behaviours. In order to implement social learning practices into mainstream education, it is important to understand the characteristics of an effective role model as well as what factors may alter social learning, such as differences in sex and culture. Teachers should demonstrate traits such as: openness, consistency, approachability, etc. as well as understanding how perceived similarities between themselves and their student may boost social learning.

Theoretical Basis

Video stills taken from Bandura et al.'s (1961) study

Social Learning Theory was originally devised by Bandura et al. (1961), based upon a study looking into the imitation of aggression in young children. Research found that children who observed aggressive adult role models towards a bobo doll were more likely to also show aggression toward the same doll. Later research into the social learning of medical students found that the students identified four of Bandura's (1977) originally theorised steps in social learning: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation as well as the processes of direct and vicarious reinforcement (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018).  

Investigations into social learning research have found that prosocial behaviour can often be mistaken for social learning, therefore a set of criterion was devised to clarify what is classed as social learning:  

1. The individual must demonstrate a change in understanding

1. The change needs to go beyond the individual to effect wider society

1. The change must occur via social interactions

(Reed et al., 2010)

Research in Education

Research in the classroom

Horsburgh & Ippolito's (2018) study found that the clinical teachers interviewed lacked an awareness of social learning strategies. Whilst the teachers did subconsciously employ the strategies, this was done irregularly and inconsistently. As the medical students they taught identified that social learning strategies were effective, this suggests that teaching methods could be improved by educating teachers about social learning strategies and how to implement them in the classroom.  

Much research has looked into the application of social learning theory into teaching social studies. The aim of this subject is to teach children how to understand themselves, their relationships and their environment, in order to give them the skills to face problems in the real world, after they leave school. Modelling of prosocial behaviours within the context of the classroom was able to boost children's understanding of norms in society and promote positive attitudes and behaviours towards others. Teachers can also verbalise their own reasoning processes within the classroom in order to promote both the children's understanding and 'self-regulation'. Self-regulation is defined as when an individual 'set their own learning goals' and takes responsibility for monitoring their own progress (Edinyang, 2016). The significance of the principle of self-regulation is also evidence in cross-cultural studies, such as that of Lim (2004) (as cited in Hill et al., 2009).  

Additional research found that children's prosocial behaviours were increased from pre-to-post-test after following a six-week social studies programme based upon the principles of social learning theory. Using methods of: model observation, self-reflection, verbal reasoning, role-playing and receiving feedback, the children were able to boost social learning and use this to implement prosocial behaviours (Sheridan et al., 2011). The study conducted post-tests immediately after the programme had ended, meaning that the long-term effects were not measured. Therefore it cannot be concluded that the programme was entirely successful in improving social learning, as the findings could have been due to a practice effect. It is also worth stating, as outlined by Reed et al. (2010), that prosocial behaviours are not the same as social learning, but could be used as a behavioural indication that social learning has occurred. Therefore it should be reviewed as to whether the observed behaviours do meet the criterion for social learning.

Research into remote learning

Findings have shown that social learning theory can have application in remote learning environments, as well as classroom-based environments. Web-based learning environments (WBLEs) are able to create human interaction in a different way via online platforms (Hill et al., 2009). Online interactions are most successful in promoting social learning when individuals share detailed personal anecdotes which include self-reflection, however it is essential that this is reinforced by other online users (Hara et al., 2000 as cited in Hill et al., 2009). There is also evidence that the provision of 'instant messaging' promotes social learning, as it uses the SLT concepts of attention and motivation to boost engagement (Amry, 2014). Additional research reinforces that written resources are the most successful for WBLE users. However, having a range of resources available (e.g. visual or auditory) is also helpful for users but the most important factor is that learning is self-regulated (Petrides, 2002; Vonderwell, 2003 as cited in Hill et al., 2009).  

Research also shows how, even in WBLEs, class size is an important influencer on social learning. Findings state that the optimal group size is between 15 and 20 students (Palloff & Pratt, 1999 as cited in Hill et al., 2009), however this might be less likely to be considered by companies offering online education courses, as this would be less cost-effective than running larger online classes. The reasoning behind the optimal class size is due to levels of interaction, as the number of students increases peer interactions will increase, but interaction between student and teacher will decrease (Caspi et al., 2003 as cited in Hill et al.,2009). Despite the success of peer interactions, research also found that the presence of an active 'teacher' figure within the WBLE boosted social learning through modelling (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2005; Caspi et al.,2003 as cited in Hill et al., 2009). Further studies have found that digital learning behaviours are strongly associated with modelling, where students were much more likely to independently use a WBLE when their teacher had demonstrated this within the classroom (Szymkowiak et al., 2021). Whilst this provides evidence that the principles of social learning theory are still very much relevant in today's digital age, the research does not directly acknowledge the impact of social learning, and therefore could be explained using alternative reasoning.  

Role Modelling

Social learning theory highlights the importance of role models in learning through both observation and vicarious reinforcement. Whilst all individuals have the potential to be a role model, research has found that specific traits or conditions are what facilitates this social learning process. One role model intervention programme found the most influential role models were: energetic, approachable, motivated, realistic, open and consistent, etc. It was found, however, that modelling was only an effective intervention strategy with participants under the age of 14, concluding that early prevention would be the most successful tactic (MacCallum & Beltman, 2002). However, this programme only focussed on drug rehabilitation in young women using a sporting programme, therefore it's findings lack population validity. Alternative findings suggest that shared group membership and perceived similarity are the most important characteristics in a role model. Examples of these similarities could include: gender, ethnicity, date of birth, or perceived physical attractiveness (Wheeler et al., 1997; Wood, 1989; Brown et al., 1992; Miller, 1982 as cited in Morgenroth et al., 2015).  

Sex Differences

In Bandura et al.'s (1961) original study, they found sex differences in both aggressive behaviours and influence of the role model. Overall, male role models were much more likely to be imitated, by both male and female children, irrespective of whether they were in the aggressive or non-aggressive condition. However, verbal aggression was replicated more when the child was the same sex as the role model they observed. It must be noted, that this is a classic study and was conducted in the 1960s, gender roles differed greatly from those within modern society, therefore these findings may lack temporal validity. More recent findings do still show sex differences in social learning, particularly differences in communication. Females are found to generally be more communicative, and will more often seek support from a teacher. When communicating, females will use more 'qualifiers' within their dialect (e.g. 'I think' or 'maybe'), whereas males tend to use more 'intensifiers' (e.g. 'very' or 'only') (Fahy, 2002 as cited in Hill et al., 2009). Whilst the difference in use of qualifiers and intensifiers is clearly present between the sexes, the study does not state the significance of this difference in relation to social learning, therefore it may not be a relevant finding.

Cultural Differences

Several studies have conducted cross-cultural research to determine whether social learning principles have global application. Lim (2004) (as cited in Hill et al., 2009) compared students from the US to students from Korea, finding cultural differences in learning attitudes. Korean students were found to be more self-regulated learners and would monitor their efforts over their achievement. On the other hand, US students were more motivated by attaining a goal, but tended to report more that they 'enjoyed' the learning process. This gives conflicting evidence for the effectiveness of social learning in the different cultures, self-regulation is regarded as a highly important influencer of success in social learning, but enjoyment of the learning process may lead to higher levels attention and motivation, which are also key to social learning. Later research has been conducted on a wider range of cultures, taking into account what the are the normal core values within their societies. Undergraduate business students across 36 countries were categorised into one of five possible groups based upon their cultural context: egoism, formalism, relativism, virtue ethics and utilitarianism. When looking at the influence of role models, the researchers found that participants from egoistic, formalist, relativist or utilitarian cultures were much more likely to replicate unethical behaviour in their workplace after having observed their manager engage in unethical behaviour. This was not found in participants from virtue ethical cultures, mainly from countries in the Asia-Pacific region, as they adopt values which are 'deemed morally valid regardless of the actions or outcomes' (Hanna et al., 2013).

Alternative Theories

Morgenroth et al. (2015), accepted some of the core principles in social learning when researching the influence of role models, such as vicarious learning. However, they instead proposed an alternative theory which draws upon aspects of both social learning theory and social influence. The 'motivational theory of role modelling' also expands upon expectancy-value theories of motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 as cited in Morgenroth et al., 2015). It theorises that role models have three key purposes: behavioural modelling, demonstrating what is 'possible' to the aspirant and inspiring the aspirant. The proposed model is cyclical, in order to emphasise how role modelling leads to motivation; when the behaviours of the role model are internalised successfully and perceived as desirable, this motivates the aspirant to pursue further attributes of the role model.  

Motivational Theory of Role Modelling flow diagram

References

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