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Sōka Gakkai
創価学会
FormationNovember 18, 1930
Founders
TypeNew religious movement
Headquarters〒160-8583, Tokyo Shinjuku-Ku, Shinanomachi (信濃町)
Membership11 million according to SG; between 3 and 4 million according to academics
President
Minoru Harada
Websitewww.sokagakkai.jp
Formerly called
Sōka Kyōiku Gakkai (創価教育学会)
Part of a series on
Buddhism in Japan
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Soka Gakkai (Japanese: 創価学会, Hepburn: Sōka Gakkai, 'Value-Creation Society') is a Japanese Buddhist religious movement based on the teachings of the 13th-century Japanese priest Nichiren. It claims the largest membership among Nichiren Buddhist groups, [citation needed] although it was excommunicated by Nichiren in 1991.

The organization bases its teachings on Nichiren's interpretation of the Lotus Sutra and places chanting Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō at the center of devotional practice. The organization promotes its goals as supporting "peace, culture, and education".[1]

In Japan, it heads a financial, educational and media empire,[2] including newspapers, publishing houses, financial holdings and a network of schools. Komeito, a conservative party allied with the ruling Liberal Democratic Party, was founded by members of the Soka Gakkai.

The movement was founded by educators Makiguchi and Toda on 18 November 1930, and held its inaugural meeting in 1937.[3] It was disbanded during the Second World War when much of the leadership was imprisoned for violations of the 1925 Peace Preservation Law and charges of lèse-majesté. After the war, its expansion was led by its former third president Daisaku Ikeda.

According to its own account, Soka Gakkai has 11 million members in 192 countries and territories around the world. However, this figure is not supported by any independent count. According to the work of American academic Levi McLaughlin,[4] membership in Japan is closer to 2–3% of the country's population, or between 2.4 and 4 million people.

Moving the group toward mainstream acceptance, the organization is still viewed with suspicion in Japan and has found itself embroiled in public controversies.[5][6][7][8][9] Komeito, a political party closely aligned with Soka Gakkai and founded by elements of its lay membership, entered a coalition agreement with the Liberal Democratic Party in 1999 and is currently a junior partner in government. Soka Gakkai has been described as a cult.[10]

Beliefs

The beliefs of Soka Gakkai center on recognizing that all life has dignity with infinite inherent potential; this immanent Buddhahood exists in every person and can be awakened through the Buddhist practice prescribed by Nichiren.[11][12] Further, a person's social actions at every moment can lead to soka, or the creation of value (the theory of the interdependence of life). Societal change is facilitated through "human revolution", a way of living in the world that creates value.[13][14][15][16][17]

The doctrine of Soka Gakkai derives from Nichiren, who promulgated the Lotus Sutra as he perceived its application to the epoch in which he and people today live.[18] Soka Gakkai gives significance to Nichiren's writings, referred to as gosho,[19] and refers especially to the collection of Nichiren's writings that was compiled by Nichiko Hori and Jōsei Toda, published as Nichiren Daishonin Gosho Zenshu in 1952.

Ichinen sanzen

T'ien-t'ai (538–597), a Chinese Buddhist scholar who upheld the Lotus Sutra, developed a theoretical system to describe the infinite interconnectedness of life translated as "the principle of the mutually inclusive relationship of a single moment of life and all phenomena" or "three thousand realms in a single moment of life" (Japanese: ichinen sanzen). This theory demonstrates that the entire phenomenal world exists in a single moment of life. Soka Gakkai members believe that because Nichiren made actualizing this possible by inscribing Gohonzon and teaching the invocation, their prayers and actions can in a single moment pierce through limitations.[20]

"Life force" and "Human Revolution"

Soka Gakkai teaches that this "self-induced change in each individual" – which Josei Toda began referring to as "human revolution" – is what leads to happiness and peace.[21][22]

Josei Toda studied a passage from the Immeasurable Meanings Sutra (considered the introduction to the Lotus Sutra) that describes Buddhahood by means of 34 negations – for example, that it is "neither being nor non-being, this nor that, square nor round". From this, he concluded that "Buddha" is life, or life force.[23][24]

Toda considered that the concept of "Buddha as life (force) means that Buddhism entails transforming society.[25] Ikeda has been quoted as saying "Faith is firm belief in the universe and the life force. Only a person of firm faith can lead a good and vigorous life [...] Buddhist doctrine is a philosophy that has human life as its ultimate object, and our Human Revolution movement is an act of reform aimed at opening up the inner universe, the creative life force within each individual, and leading to human freedom."[26]

The concept of life force is central to the Soka Gakkai's conception of the role of religion and the application of Nichiren's teachings. Ikeda states that "[o]ur health, courage, wisdom, joy, desire to improve, self-discipline, and so on, could all be said to depend on our life force".[27]

Oneness of mentor and disciple

The Soka Gakkai liturgy refers to all of its first three presidents – Tsunesabura Makiguchi, Josei Toda and Daisaku Ikeda – as "the eternal mentors of kosen-rufu".[28] The organization's current leader, Ikeda, is revered by members.[29] The relationship between members and their mentors is referred to as "the oneness of mentor and disciple". The mentor is to lead and thereby improve the lives of his disciples. The mentor's actions are seen as giving disciples confidence in their own unrealized potential. The role of disciples is seen as supporting their mentor and realizing his vision using their unique abilities and circumstances.

Since the mid-1990s, the issue of the oneness of mentor and disciple has received more prominence in Soka Gakkai. There is a strong emphasis on "cultivating all members [...] in discipleship" through forging "affective one-to-one relationships with Ikeda".[30]: 70 

"On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land"

Nichiren wrote a treatise "On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land" in 1260 and submitted it to the regent.[who?] Soka Gakkai members believe that it is one of his most important writings. In it, he claimed that the source of the natural disasters Japan faced at that time was due to the weakened spirit of its people, caused by attachments to religions that disavow the primacy of the people themselves. He called for the leaders and people to base their spiritual life on the Lotus Sutra, "the correct teaching", which would, in turn, lead to "the peace of the land".[31]: 61–62 

Five "Eternal Guidelines of Faith"

In 1957, Josei Toda proclaimed three "Eternal Guidelines of Faith". In 2003, Daisaku Ikeda added two more guidelines. The Five Guidelines of Faith are:

  1. Faith for a harmonious family;
  2. Faith for each person to become happy;
  3. Faith for surmounting obstacles;
  4. Faith for health and long life;
  5. Faith for absolute victory.[32]

Relation to the Lotus Sutra

Soka Gakkai members pray to Nichiren's Gohonzon (see section on Gohonzon), which "embodies Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, the essence of the Lotus Sutra".[33] The Gohonzon includes the Sutra's teaching that all life inherently possesses dignity when "illuminated by the light of the Mystic Law".,[34] and depicts the ceremony in which bodhissatvas embrace "their mission to teach and preach to suffering people the path to happiness and freedom".[35]

Soka Gakkai's history is closely intertwined with the study of the Lotus Sutra. Josei Toda began the postwar reconstruction by lecturing on the sutra, the study of which led to what Soka Gakkai considers his enlightenment (see "Life Force and Human Revolution"). After Soka Gakkai's excommunication by Nichiren Shōshū, Daisaku Ikeda conducted dialogue sessions on the Lotus Sutra which resulted in the publication of a six-volume work called The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra.[36]

Karma (as "changing karma into mission")

The concept of karma is based on the law of causality. It refers to consequences created through one's actions, words or thoughts. Both early Buddhists and Hindus believed that to redress karma accumulated over the course of many eons, one must be reincarnated numerous times.[37] The concept of karma then often became a source of despair as well as a tool for Buddhist clergy to instill fear and guilt in the minds of believers. Soka Gakkai Nichiren Buddhism, however, believes that the fundamental cause for revealing the ultimate potential of life, or Buddha nature, can diminish the influence of negative karma in the present lifetime.[38]

Ikeda explains that negative karma is subsumed in the world of Buddhahood and is purified by its power.[39] Importantly, Soka Gakkai members believe effects are determined simultaneously with causes, though they remain latent until the right external influences bring them to fruition. Soka Gakkai Buddhism teaches that even the most stubborn karma can be overcome as one reveals one's Buddha nature in this lifetime.

Practices

The practice of Soka Gakkai members is directed to "oneself and others".[40]

Chanting

The words Nam-myoho-renge-kyo (also called Daimoku) is the main practice of the organization, which is claimed to express the true nature of life through cause and effect.[41] Soka Gakkai members believe that chanting releases the power of the universal life force inherent in life.[42] For some members, chanting for material benefits is a first step toward realizing the ultimate goal of Buddhahood.

The believers of the organization chant these words reputed to change their lives, including the natural environments in which they live.[43] Accordingly, the intended goal is to produce an internal change that serves as the motivator for external social change. Furthermore, the organization teaches that chanting cannot be divorced from action.[44]

Gohonzon

The Gohonzon Soka Gakkai members enshrine in their homes and centers is a transcription by the 26th High Priest Nichikan Shonin.[45] The central main syllabary of characters reads Namu-Myoho-Renge-Kyo (Kanji: 南 無 妙 法 蓮 華 經). The lower portion reads "Nichi-Ren" (Kanji: 日 蓮). On the corners are the names of the Four Heavenly Kings from Buddhist cosmology, and the remaining characters are names of Buddhist deities reputed to represent the various conditions of life.[46]

The organization teaches that in contrast to worshiping the Buddha or Dharma as anthropomorphized personifications, Nichiren deliberately made a calligraphic mandala, rather than Buddhist statues as the central object of devotion.[47] American author, Richard Seager explains the following:

"...In total, it is not a sacred image in the traditional sense but an abstract representation of a universal essence or principle.[48] Nichiren wrote: "I, Nichiren, have inscribed my life in sumi ink, so believe in the Gohonzon with your whole heart."[49] He further stated: "Never seek this Gohonzon outside yourself. The Gohonzon exists only within the mortal flesh of us ordinary people who chant Nam-myoho-renge-kyo."[50]

The Soka Gakkai often uses Nichiren's metaphor of a mirror to explain its faith in the Gohonzon. The Gohonzon "reflects life's innate enlightened nature and cause it to permeate every aspect of member's lives". Members chant to the Gohonzon "to reveal the power of their own enlightened wisdom and vow to put it to use for the good of themselves and others".[51] The organization teaches that a member is considered to be practicing the Lotus Sutra when chanting Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo to the Gohonzon.[52][53]

Faith, practice, and study

The primary practice of the Soka Gakkai, like that of most Nichiren sects, is chanting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, which is the title of the Lotus Sutra, and simultaneously considered the Buddha nature inherent in life[54] and the ultimate reality of existence.[55] The supplemental practice is the daily recitation of parts of the 2nd and 16th chapters of the Lotus Sutra. Unlike other Nichiren sects, the Soka Gakkai stresses that practice for enlightenment entails actual "engagement in the realities of daily life", while including the happiness of others in one's own practice.[56]

Believers claim that the Lotus Sutra contains principles or teachings that are not readily apparent. Furthermore, the Soka Gakkai claims that Nichiren revealed these teachings as The "Three Great Secret Laws" namely the following:.[57]

  1. The "Object of Devotion" (Gohonzon mandala) used and designated by the Soka Gakkai
  2. The incantation (of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo) by united Soka Gakkai believers
  3. The sanctuary or place where Buddhism is practiced.[58]

Soka Gakkai practices Nichiren Buddhism as it has been expounded by its three founding presidents, and so also studies their speeches and writings, especially those of third President Daisaku Ikeda. His novelized histories of the movement, The Human Revolution (and its sequel The New Human Revolution) have been said to have "canonical status" as it "functions as a source of inspiration and guidance for members".[59] Study meetings are held monthly. "The tenor of the meetings is one of open discussion rather than didactic teaching..." Discussions on Nichiren's teachings are welcomed, "dictatorial edicts on moral behavior are not."[60]

The Soka Gakkai practice also includes activities beyond the ritualistic, such as meetings, social engagement, and improving one's circumstances; these also have significance as religious activities in the Soka Gakkai.[61][62][63]

Discussion meetings

Main article: Zadankai

Gakkai meetings have been called "formal liturgies" in that their format – "chanting, relatos (experiences), teachings, inspiring entertainment" – is identical from place to place.[64] Discussion meetings are among the most important activities of the Soka Gakkai.[65]

At discussion meetings, participants are encouraged to take responsibility "for their own lives and for wider social and global concerns".[66] The format is an example of how the Soka Gakkai is able to "dispense with much of the apparatus of conventional church organization".[67]

Proselytizing

The Soka Gakkai's expansion methods have been seen as controversial, as it employed a Buddhist method called shakubuku, a term employed by Nichiren, translated as "break and subdue (attachments to inferior teachings)."[68][69][70]

The reason for propagation, as explained by Josei Toda, is "not to make the Soka Gakkai larger but for you to become happier ... There are many people in the world who are suffering from poverty and disease. The only way to make them really happy is to shakubuku them."[71]

In 1970 Ikeda prescribed a more moderate approach, "urging its members to adopt an attitude of openness to others"; the method Soka Gakkai prefers since then is called shoju– "dialogue or conversation designed to persuade people rather than convert them", though this is often referred to still as "shakubuku spirit".[72]

History

Foundation

Main article: Tsunesaburō Makiguchi
Tsunesaburō Makiguchi, first President of the Sōka Gakkai

In 1928, educators Tsunesaburō Makiguchi and Jōsei Toda both converted to Nichiren Buddhism. The Soka Gakkai officially traces its foundation to November 1930, when Makiguchi and Toda published the first volume of Makiguchi's magnum opus on educational reform, Sōka Kyōikugaku Taikei (創価教育学体系, The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy).[73][74]: 49  The first general meeting of the organization, then under the name Sōka Kyōiku Gakkai (創価教育学会, "Value Creating Educational Society"), took place in 1937.[75]

The membership eventually came to change from teachers interested in educational reform to people from all walks of life, drawn by the religious elements of Makiguchi's beliefs in Nichiren Buddhism.[76]: 14  The group had a focus on proselytization growing from an attendance of 60 people at its first meeting to about 300 at its next meeting in 1940.[77]

Repression during the war

See also: Japanese dissidence in 20th-century Imperial Japan

In 1942, a monthly magazine published by Makiguchi called Kachi Sōzō (価値創造, "Creating values") was shut down by the government, after only nine issues. Makiguchi, Toda, and 19 other leaders of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai were arrested on July 6, 1943, on charges of breaking the Peace Preservation Law and lèse-majesté: for "denying the Emperor's divinity" and "slandering" the Ise Grand Shrine. The details of Makiguchi's indictment and subsequent interrogation were covered in July, August, and October 1943 classified monthly bulletins of the Special Higher Police.[78]

With its leadership decimated, the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai disbanded.[79][80] During interrogation, Makiguchi had insisted that "The emperor is an ordinary man ... the emperor makes mistakes like anyone else".[81]: 40–41  The treatment in prison was harsh, and within a year, all but Makiguchi, Toda, and one other director had recanted and been released.[79] On November 18, 1944, Makiguchi died of malnutrition in prison, at the age of 73.

Jōsei Toda, second President of the Sōka Gakkai

Jōsei Toda was released from prison on July 3, 1945, after serving two years of imprisonment on the charges of lèse majesté. He immediately set out to rebuild the organization that had been repressed and dismantled by the government during the war.[82][83]

The reconstruction of the organization

Toda officially re-established the organization, now under the shortened moniker Sōka Gakkai ("Value-creation society"), integrated his prison awakenings into the doctrine of the Soka Gakkai, began locating members who had dispersed during the war, started a series of lectures on the Lotus Sutra and Nichiren's letters, undertook business ventures (largely unsuccessful) to provide a stream of revenue for the organization, provided personal encouragement to many members, launched a monthly study magazine Daibyaku Renge (大白蓮華), and the newspaper Seikyo Shimbun, launched propagation efforts, and involved the active participation of youth including Daisaku Ikeda who was to become his right-hand man and successor.[84][85]

Noah Brannen, a Christian missionary writing in 1969,[86] describes the Soka Gakkai's study program at this point as "the most amazing program of indoctrination Japan has ever seen". New members attended local study lectures, subscribed to weekly and monthly periodicals, studied Toda's commentaries on the Lotus Sutra, took annual study examinations, and were awarded titles for their achievements such as Associate Lecturer, Lecturer, Associate Teacher, or Teacher.[81]: 142 [87]: 208 [88]

"The Great Propagation Drive"

The drive began with the 1951 inauguration speech of Josei Toda when he assumed the presidency of the organization. Before 1,500 assembled members, Toda resolved to convert 750,000 families before his death.[89]: 285–286  The accuracy of this figure was never confirmed by outside sources.[87]: 199  The primary vehicle of the propagation efforts were small group discussion meetings.[90]: 252 

There are several competing narratives that attempt to explain how the Soka Gakkai was able to achieve this rapid growth. One narrative portrays a drive powered by the "seemingly unlimited enthusiasm" of its members[87]: 199  that was masterminded by Toda and channeled by his younger followers.[91]: 41  The organization's own publications articulate this narrative.

A second narrative examines the Soka Gakkai's expansion through a sociological lens. White, in the first English-language sociological work on the Soka Gakkai, attributes the growth, cohesion, and sustainability of the organization to the organizational skills of its leaders, its system of values and norms that match the individual needs of members, and its ability to adapt to changing times.[91]: 42–56  According to Dator, the organizational structure of the Soka Gakkai, which values individual participation within small heterogeneous groups and parallel peer associations by age, gender, and interests, fulfills members' socio-psychological needs.[92]

A third narrative tracks criticisms of the Soka Gakkai in the popular press and by other Buddhist sects. This narrative implies that the propagation efforts succeeded through intimidating and coercive actions committed by Soka Gakkai members[93][94]: 80, 101 [95][96]: 217  such as the practice then of destroying the household Shinto altars of new members.[97] There were reports of isolated incidents of violence conducted by Soka Gakkai members but also incidents directed toward them.[91]: 49 [89]: 287 

Daisaku Ikeda, third President of the Soka Gakkai, 2010
Daisaku Ikeda receiving "Leonardo Prize" in 2009 from Alexander Yakovlev

Jōsei Toda was succeeded as president in 1960 by the 32-year-old Daisaku Ikeda. Ikeda urged, from 1964, a gentler approach to proselytizing.[98][99] Under Ikeda's leadership, the organization expanded rapidly, both inside and outside Japan during the 1960s.

Soka Gakkai's own narratives argue that within the first 16 months of Ikeda's presendency the organization grew from 1.3 million to 2.1 million members.[100] By 1967 it grew to 6.2 million families according to its own reporting.[101] By 1968, the daily Seikyo Shimbun newspaper is supposed to have attained a circulation of 3,580,000.[102] Today, the Soka Gakkai claims it has a circulation of 5.5 million copies,[103] but the number is controversial and impossible to verify since Seikyo Shinbun does not belong the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association nor the 日本ABC協会 who are officially in charge of the circulation numbers of Japanese newspapers.

International growth

In October 1960, five months after his inauguration, Ikeda and a small group of staff members visited the United States, Canada (Toronto),[104] and Brazil.[105] In the United States he visited Honolulu, San Francisco, Seattle, Chicago, New York, Washington, DC, and Los Angeles, meeting with members, the vast majority Japanese war brides, at discussion and guidance meetings, setting up local organizations, and appointing leaders to take responsibility.

Ikeda also expanded the scope and pattern of the Gakkai's activities. In 1961 he created an arm of the organization, the Culture Bureau, to accommodate nonreligious activities. It had departments for the study and discussion of Economics, Politics, Education, Speech, and, later in the year, the Arts.[106]

Ikeda and his team visited countries in Europe and Southeast Asia in 1961 and the Near and Middle East in 1962.[107] By 1967 Ikeda had completed 13 trips abroad to strengthen the overseas organizations.[108]

The Gakkai's first overseas mission, called Nichiren Shoshu of America (NSA), grew rapidly and claimed some 200,000 American adherents by 1970.[109] Ikeda founded Soka Junior and Senior High Schools in 1968 and Soka University in 1971.[110] Soka Gakkai International (SGI) was formally founded in 1975, on Guam.[111]

Founding of the Komeito

Main article: Komeito

In 1961 Soka Gakkai formed the Komei Political League. Seven of its candidates were elected to the House of Councillors. In 1964 the Komeito (Clean Government Party) was formed by Ikeda. Over the course of several elections it became the third largest political party, typically amassing 10–15% of the popular vote.[112] The New Komeito Party was founded in 1998 and has been allied with the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) since 1999.

In 2014 the New Komeito was renamed Komeito again.[113] Komeito generally supports the policy agenda of the LDP, including the reinterpretation of the pacifist Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan, proposed in 2014 by LDP Prime Minister Shinzō Abe to allow "collective defense" and to fight in foreign conflicts.[114][115]

1969: Crisis and transformation

In response to criticism, Ikeda made major shifts to the Gakkai's message.[116] He committed the organization to the rights of free speech and freedom of religion, admitting it had been intolerant and overly sensitive in the past.

In the 1970s Ikeda helped transition the Soka Gakkai from an internally focused organization centered on its own membership growth to one adopting a focus on a motto of "Peace, Culture, and Education". On October 12, 1972, at the official opening of the Shohondo at Taiseki-ji Ikeda announced the start of the Soka Gakkai's "Phase Two" which would shift direction from aggressive expansion to a movement for international peace through friendship and exchange.[117]

Scandals in the 1990s

Nichiren Shōshū excommunicated the Soka Gakkai and the Soka Gakkai International (SGI) on 28 November 1991 due to doctrinal conflicts and the reputation of the Soka Gakkai, at that time entangled in political and financial scandals.

In 1991, the Soka Gakkai had to pay $4.5 million in back taxes on 2.4 billion yen (US$1.7 million) of undeclared income.

Former relations with the Nichiren Shoshu sect

Generally speaking, Soka Gakkai and Nichiren Shōshū worked in harmony before 1990, although there have been moments of tension. An early example of strained relations came during World War II, in 1943, when the Nichiren sect's headquarters at Taiseki-ji was willing to comply with Japanese government demands to enshrine a Shinto talisman of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu inside the temple. Makiguchi and Toda, on the other hand, angrily rebuked Taiseki-ji for doing so, and the two were jailed for refusing to do the same (Makiguchi would also die while in prison).[118]

Nikken Abe excommunicated Soka Gakkai and its senior leaders in November 1991, citing doctrinal deviations, the Soka Gakkai's usurpation of rites such as the Higan-e equinox ceremonies and funerals without Nichiren Shoshu priests officiating, its defiant staging of Ode to Joy concerts that, for their Christian themes, were incongruent with Nichiren Shoshu doctrine, and a speech (which became public when a recording was leaked) by then Soka Gakkai President Daisaku Ikeda.[citation needed] It also condemned Ikeda for abandoning the aggressive propagation style (shakubuku) that led to some social criticism of the lay group, though not the priesthood.[119] In response, the Soka Gakkai countered by outlining Nichiren Shoshu's deviation from their own interpretation of Nichiren's doctrines, along with accusations of simony and hedonism among its ranking priests.[citation needed]

The priesthood further accused the organization of impiety and sacrilegious behavior, citing the song "Ode to Joy" along with the promotion of its musical performance, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, as evidence for non-Buddhist teachings.[120]

In 2014, the Soka Gakkai rewrote its bylaws to reflect that it no longer had any relationship with Nichiren Shoshu or its doctrine.[121]

Outreach

In the 1970s, the Soka Gakkai began to re-conceptualize itself as an organization promoting the theme of "Peace, culture, and education."[122] In later years, the three themes were institutionalized within the 1995 charter of the Soka Gakkai International.[123]

The Soka Gakkai's subsidiary organizations also have a social presence. Several educational institutions were either founded by the Soka Gakkai or were inspired by the educational writings of the Soka Gakkai's three presidents.

Ikeda also founded the Tokyo Fuji Art Museum in 1983. It houses collections of western and oriental art, and has participated in exchanges with museums around the world.[124] Soka Gakkai has a long tradition of "culture festivals", originating in the 1950s, which take the form of group gymnastics, marching bands, traditional ensembles, orchestras, ballet, or choral presentations.

The Soka Gakkai uses its financial resources for a number of civic activities. It has participated in many activities and exhibitions in conjunction with the UN.[125] The Soka Gakkai has established multiple institutions and research facilities.[126][127][128]

Organization

Hall of the Great Vow for Kosen-rufu (Kosen-rufu Daiseido)
Soka Gakkai's Tokyo headquarters

Formally, the Soka Gakkai International is the umbrella organization for all national organizations, while Soka Gakkai by itself refers to the Japanese arm.

The basic functional organizational unit is the Block – a group of members in a neighborhood who meet regularly for discussion, study and encouragement. A number of Blocks form a District, and Districts are grouped into Chapters. From there the Soka Gakkai is organized into Areas, Regions, Prefectures and, finally, Territories – all under the umbrella of the national organization. Discussion and study meetings, the basic organizational activities, are conducted mainly at the Block level, though there are occasional meetings held at every level.[129]

Membership

Soka Gakkai International claims a total of over 12 million adherents.[130] The majority of these belong to the Japanese organization, whose official membership count is 8.27 million households.[131] However, this is the figure put forward by the organization itself, and is not supported by any independent count. According to the work of American academic Levi McLaughlin, membership in Japan is closer to 2-3% of the country's population, or between 2.4 and 4 million people.

In a 1996 NHK survey, it was found that Soka Gakkai adherent made up somewhere around 3.2% of the Japanese population, or somewhere around 4 million individuals.[132] According to statistics from the Agency for Cultural Affairs (a body of the Japanese Ministry of Education), the Japanese organization had 5.42 million individual members in 2000.[133]

In a 2002–2003 survey of 602 Soka Gakkai adherents living in Sapporo, Hokkaido who had at least one child over the age of 18, it was found that 65.9% of those members' adult children were also themselves active members. Additionally, it was found that among the siblings of 418 second-generation members, collectively speaking, 69.5% of all those siblings were also active members. A further analysis found that "higher degrees of parental religiosity, better family relationships, and higher levels of participation in youth groups" contributed to higher degrees of religiosity among Soka Gakkai children during middle school years, although this effect was more pronounced in women than in men.[134]

A study in Europe found that most of new members joined because of the personalities of the people they met within the organization; but the biggest reason for continuing is the positive changes they see in their own lives.[135]

List of Soka Gakkai presidents

The following are the list of the presidents of the Soka Gakkai:

  1. Tsunesaburō Makiguchi – (18 November 1930 – 18 November 1944)
  2. Jōsei Toda – (3 May 1951 – 2 April 1958)
  3. Daisaku Ikeda – (3 May 1960 – 24 April 1979) + (Honorary President of the Soka Gakkai International: 1979 – 2023)
  4. Hiroshi Hōjō – (24 April 1979 – 18 July 1981)
  5. Einosuke Akiya – (18 July 1981 – 9 November 2006)[136]
  6. Minoru Harada – (9 November 2006 – incumbent)[136]

Economic and social influence

The Soka Gakkai is the head of a media, political and financial empire. Levi McLaughlin writes that "exerts considerable influence in the fields of education, media, finance, and culture throughout Japan".[137] According to the magazine Shûkan Daiyamondo (June 2016), the assets of the organization include fourteen corporations, investments in 331 other companies for 18 billion yens, holding overseas, and real estate holdings.[citation needed] Forbes magazine estimated (2004) that the organization has an income of at least $1.5 billion per year.[138] In 2008, religion scholar Hiroshi Shimada has estimated the wealth of the Soka Gakkai at ¥500 billion.[139] Daisaku Ikeda's writings are the roots of a massive publishing and media enterprise, centered on the Gakkai's newspaper, Seikyō shinbun. The newspaper has an important readership base. It is only sold in Soka Gakkai's venues, and mainly bought and read by Soka Gakkai's members, though its print run is impossible to verify.[140]

Perception

In Japan

Today, Soka Gakkai is rarely criticized in mainstream news media. Since the Komeito Party joined the ruling government coalition in 1999, widespread criticism by the media of the Soka Gakkai has abated and the Soka Gakkai is gaining acceptance as part of the Japanese mainstream.[141][142] There has been a "fractured view" of the Soka Gakkai in Japan. On the one hand it is seen as a politically and socially engaged movement;[143][144] on the other, it is still viewed with suspicion by Japanese people.[145][146]

International perception

Soka Gakkai is considered as a cult in several countries, including France and Belgium.

In 2015, Italian prime minister Matteo Renzi signed an agreement that recognizes the Soka Gakkai as a "Concordat" that grants the religions status in "a special 'club' of denominations consulted by the government in certain occasions, and, perhaps more importantly, to be partially financed by taxpayers' money." Eleven other religious denominations share this status.[147][148]

Controversies

In 1969, prominent university professor Fujiwara Hirotatsu authored the book I Denounce Soka Gakkai (Soka Gakkai o kiru)[149] in which he severely criticized the Gakkai. The Gakkai and Kōmeitō attempted to use their political power to suppress its publication. When Fujiwara went public with the attempted suppression, the Soka Gakkai was harshly criticized in the Japanese media.[150]

Cult status

Soka Gakkai has been described as a cult.[10][151] Particular controversies have arisen around its entry into politics with the New Komeito and an alleged cult of personality surrounding former leader Daisaku Ikeda. Seizaburo Sato, deputy director of the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, described Soka Gakkai as "a dictatorship built around the person of one man."[152] Soka Gakkai members have made arson attacks and bomb threat against rival groups, as well as wiretapping the house of the Communist Party of Japan leader. Soka Gakkai have distanced themselves from these members and attributed their actions to mental illness.[153] Rick Alan Ross, cult specialist and founder of the nonprofit Cult Education Institute, considers them a "destructive cult" and claims to have "received serious complaints from former members and from family members."[154]

Sexual assault allegation

In June 1996, Nobuko Nobuhira, a long-time Sokka Gakkai member, filed a 75 million yen civil suit against Ikeda, alleging that he raped her on three occasions, including at the sect's facilities and on a street in Hokkaido. Sokka Gakkai lawyers denied these claims, calling them "groundless fabrications motivated by personal resentment" and alleging that Nobuhira had extorted money from Soka Gakkai members. The lawsuit was dismissed in 1996, and an appeal was denied in 2006.[155][156]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ "At a Glance". Soka Global (SGI). n.d. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  2. ^ Levi McLaughlin, Soka Gakkai's Human Revolution: The Rise of a Mimetic Nation in Modern Japan, University of Hawaii Press 2019: "Conceiving of Soka Gakkai as a mimetic nation-state makes sense of the full range of its component elements, which include its affiliated political party Komeito (Clean Government Party), a bureaucracy overseen by powerful presidents, a media empire, a private school system, massive cultural enterprises, de facto sovereign territory controlled by organized cadres, and many other nation- state-like appurtenances." (p.ix)
  3. ^ Jacqueline I. Stone, Original Enlightenment and the Transformation of Medieval Japanese Buddhism (Studies in East Asian Buddhism), University of Hawaii Press 2003, ISBN 978-0-8248-2771-7, page 454.
  4. ^ Levi McLaughlin, Soka Gakkai's Human Revolution: The Rise of a Mimetic Nation in Modern Japan, Hawaii, University of Hawai‘i Press, 31 December 2018
  5. ^ Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin, eds. (2010). Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 2656–2659. ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6.
  6. ^ Phillip E. Hammond and David W. Machacek, "Soka Gakkai International" in J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann (eds.), Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, 2010, p. 2658. "Daisaku Ikeda (b. 1928), Soka Gakkai's charismatic third president, led the international growth of the movement. Although Ikeda and his successor, Einosuke Akiya, have gone to great lengths to improve the movement's public image, suspicion remains. Soka Gakkai's political involvement through the organ of the Komeito, a political party founded by the Soka Gakkai, and the near godlike reverence that members have for President Ikeda have tended to perpetuate public distrust. Although it has been subjected to a generalized suspicion toward Eastern religious movements in the United States, Europe, and South America, the movement's history outside of Japan has been tranquil by comparison to its Japanese history."
  7. ^ Wellman, James K. Jr.; Lombardi, Clark B., eds. (2012-08-16). Religion and human security: a global perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-19-982775-6. "When I conducted a survey of 235 Doshisha University students a few years ago asking their opinions about the Gakkai and how much they knew about its peace education programs, over 80 percent responded that they had a negative image of the movement and about 60 percent thought that its 'peace movement' is little more than promotional propaganda. The few respondents with a positive image were either Soka Gakkai members, were related members, or were friends of members."
  8. ^ Seagar, Richard (2006). Encountering the Dharma: Daisaku Ikeda, the Soka Gakkai, and the Globalization of Buddhist Humanism. University of California Press. p. xii. ISBN 978-0-52024577-8. Since its founding in the 1930s, the SG has repeatedly found itself at the center of controversies, some linked to major struggles over the future of Japan, others to intense internal religious debates that erupted into public view. Over the course of its history, however, it has also grown into a large, politically active, and very well-established network of institutions, whose membership represents something on the order of a tenth of the Japanese population. One result is that there is a fractured view of the movement in Japan. On one hand, it is seen as a highly articulated, politically and socially engaged movement with an expressed message of human empowerment and global peace. On the other, it has been charged with an array of nefarious activities that range from fellow traveling with Communists and sedition to aspiring to world domination.
  9. ^ Lewis, James R. (2003). Scholarship and the Delegitimation of Religion in Legitimating new religions ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. pp. 217–218. ISBN 978-0-8135-3324-7. "For over half a century, one of the most controversial new religions in Japan has been Soka Gakkai."
  10. ^ a b McElhinney, David (2022-01-11). "Op-ed: Frankly, Cult Thinking is Everywhere in Japan". Tokyo Weekender. Retrieved 2024-01-09. Called a cult by some, Buddhist group Soka Gakkai, based on the teachings of 13th-century priest Nichiren, claims to have 8.27-million-member households in Japan....
  11. ^ Strand, Clark (2008). "Faith in Revolution: An Interview with Daisaku Ikeda". Tricycle. Winter. To chant Nam-myoho-renge-kyo is to call out the name of the Buddha-nature within us and in all living beings. It is an act of faith in this universal Buddha-nature, an act of breaking through the fundamental darkness of life—our inability to acknowledge our true enlightened nature. It is this fundamental darkness, or ignorance, that causes us to experience the cycles of birth and death as suffering. When we call forth and base ourselves on the magnificent enlightened life that exists within each of us without exception, however, even the most fundamental, inescapable sufferings of life and death need not be experienced as pain. Rather, they can be transformed into a life embodying the virtues of eternity, joy, true self, and purity.
  12. ^ Susumu, Shimazono (1999). Yoshinori, Takeuchi (ed.). "Soka Gakkai and the Modern Reformation of Buddhism" in Buddhist Spirituality: Later China, Korea, Japan and the Modern world. Crossroads Publishing. p. 439. ISBN 978-0-8245-1595-9. Therefore, when you sit before the Gohonzon and believe there is no distinction among the Gohonzon, Nichiren and you yourself, [...] the great life force of the universe becomes your own life force and gushes forth.
  13. ^ Fisker-Nielsen, Anne-Mette (2013). Religion and Politics in Contemporary Japan: Soka Gakkai Youth and Komeito. [S.l.]: Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-415-74407-2. Ikeda's reading of Nichiren always returns to this point of seeing the potential of "Buddhahood" present in each person, in each social action and at each moment (the theory of ichinen sanzen). Emphasizing the potentially positive and mutually beneficial outcome to any situation is the basis for the concept of soka, creation of value, which is the name of the organization. The most fundamental idea is that to facilitate social change it is necessary to develop a way of being in the world that creates value. The daily morning and evening chanting of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo and the study of Nichiren Buddhism is advocated as the practice for such self-development...
  14. ^ Macioti, Maria Immacolata; Capozzi (tr), Richard (2002). The Buddha within ourselves: blossoms of the Lotus Sutra. Lanham: University Press of America. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-7618-2189-2. It is a matter of a "human revolution" that begins with the individual, etends to the family, and then, if possible, spreads to entire nations; social peace would come about as the summation of many single "human revolutions".
  15. ^ Strand, Clark (2014). Waking the Buddha: how the most dynamic and empowering Buddhist movement in history is changing our concept of religion. Santa Monica, CA: Middleway Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-9779245-6-1. From the beginning, the Soka Gakkai's approach to Buddhism was focused on the fundamental dignity of human life—affirming it, protecting it, and convincing others to do the same.
  16. ^ Bocking, Brian. "Soka Gakkai". Overview of World Religions. University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy, Philtar (Philosophy, Theology and Religion). Central to Soka Gakkai's philosophy are the ideas of 'human revolution' (i.e. personal and social transformation) and the Tendai concept of 'one thought, three thousand worlds'. According to Soka Gakkai, human beings can change themselves, and through changing themselves change the world. Change for the better is brought about by chanting the powerful daimoku ("great invocation") – 'Nam-myoho-renge-kyo'. The effect of chanting this phrase, which embodies the essence of the enlightened mind of the Buddha, is radically to elevate one's mental and spiritual state within the 3,000 possible states of mind, which range from the experience of hell to perfect supreme enlightenment. Since 'body and mind are not two' (i.e. they are a unity), the transformation of the 'inner' or mental state is reflected in transformed behaviour and therefore social influence. If enough people practice, whole societies and eventually the whole world will be transformed.
  17. ^ Morgan, Diane (2004). The Buddhist experience in America (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn. [u.a.]: Greenwood Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-313-32491-8.
  18. ^ Buck, Christopher (2015). God and Apple Pie. Kingston, NY: Educator's International Press. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-891928-15-4.
  19. ^ Go is an honorific prefix and sho means 'writings'; thus, literally, 'honorable writings'.
  20. ^ "Three Thousand Realms in a Single Moment of Life". Soka Gakkai International. 24 August 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  21. ^ "Human Revolution". www.joseitoda.org.
  22. ^ Dobbelaere, Karel (1998). Soka Gakkai. Signature Books. pp. 9, 70. ISBN 978-1-56085-153-0.
  23. ^ Seager, Richard (2006-03-16). Encountering the Dharma. University of California Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-520-24577-8.
  24. ^ Tamaru, Noriyoshi (2000). Macachek and Wilson (ed.). "The Soka Gakkai In Historical Perspective" in Global Citizens. Oxford University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-19-924039-5.
  25. ^ Seager, Richard. Encountering the Dharma. p. 53.
  26. ^ Shimazono, Susumu. Buddhist Spirituality: Later China, Korea, Japan and the Modern world. p. 436.
  27. ^ Ikeda, Daisaku (September 2014). "Winning In Life With Daimoku". Living Buddhism: 51.
  28. ^ The Liturgy of the Soka Gakkai International. SGI-USA. 2015. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-935523-81-9.
  29. ^ Chilson, Clark (2014). "Cultivating Charisma: Ikeda Daisaku's Self Presentations and Transformational Leadership". Journal of Global Buddhism, Vol. 15., p. 67
  30. ^ McLaughlin, Levi (2012). "Did Aum Change Everything? What Soka Gakkai Before, During, and After the Aum Shinrikyo Affair Tells Us About the Persistent "Otherness" of New Religions in Japan, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 39 (1): 51–75. Archived from the original on 2013-12-23.
  31. ^ Ikeda, Daisaku; Abdurrahman, Wahid (2015). The Wisdom of Tolerance. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78453-091-4.
  32. ^ "Buddhist Concepts". Living Buddhism. 18 (12): 8. December 2014.
  33. ^ The Liturgy of the Soka Gakkai International. SGIUSA. 2015. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-935523-84-0.
  34. ^ Nichiren (1999). The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin. Tokyo: Soka Gakkai. p. 832. The Real Aspect of the Gohonzon
  35. ^ Seagar, Richard (2006). Encountering the Dharma. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-520-24577-8.
  36. ^ "The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra I -VI - Daisaku Ikeda Website". www.daisakuikeda.org.
  37. ^ Nanda and Ikeda, Ved and Daisaku (2015). Our World to Make. Cambridge, MA: Dialogue Path Press. p. 94.
  38. ^ Yatomi, Shin (2006). Buddhism in a New Light. Santa Monica: World Tribune Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-932911-14-5.
  39. ^ Daisaku Ikeda; Katsuji Sato; Masaaki Morinaka (2004). The World of Nichiren Daishonin's Writings. Vol. 3. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Soka Gakkai Malaysia. p. 62.
  40. ^ Dobbelaere, Karel (1998). Soka Gakkai. Signature Books. p. 27. ISBN 1-56085-153-8.
  41. ^ Dobbelaere, Karel (1998). The Soka Gakkai. Signature Books. pp. 20–26. ISBN 978-1-56085-153-0.
  42. ^ Susume, Shimazono. Yoshinori, Takeuchi (ed.). "The Soka Gakkai and the Modern Reformation of Buddhism" in Buddhist Spirituality. p. 437.
  43. ^ Dobbelaere, Karel. The Soka Gakkai. p. 26.
  44. ^ Ikeda, Daisaku (September 2014). "Change Starts From Prayer". Living Buddhism. 18 (9): 56–57.
  45. ^ Seagar, Richard (2012). Buddhism in America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-231-10868-3.
  46. ^ J. Gordon Melton; Martin Baumann, eds. (2010). Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 2658. ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6.
  47. ^ Morino, Ted (2001), World Tribune, Santa Monica: World Tribune Press, p. 2
  48. ^ Seager, Richard (2006), Encountering the Dharma, Berkeley: University of California Press, p. 33
  49. ^ Nichiren (1999), The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, Santa Monica: SGI-USA Study Department, p. 412
  50. ^ Nichiren (1999), The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, Santa Monica: SGI-USA Study Department, p. 832
  51. ^ SGI-USA Study Department (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Santa Monica: World Tribune Press, p. 32
  52. ^ Ikeda, Daisaku (September 2014). "The Significance of the Expedient Means and Life Span Chapters". Living Buddhism. 18 (9): 52–53.
  53. ^ "Upholding Faith In The Lotus Sutra". Soka Gakkai Nichiren Buddhism Library. Retrieved 2014-11-03. This Gohonzon is the essence of the Lotus Sutra and the eye of all the scriptures.
  54. ^ Seager, Richard (2006). Encountering the Dharma. University of California Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-520-24577-8. They could, in Anasekei's words, 'restore a primeval connection with the eternal Buddha'
  55. ^ Melton and Baumann (2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 2658. ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6. By chanting the title of the Lotus Sutra, Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo one forms a connection with the ultimate reality that pervades the universe
  56. ^ Shimazono, Susumu (1999). "Soka Gakkai and the Modern Reformation of Buddhism". In Takeuchi, Yoshinori (ed.). Buddhist Spirituality: Later China, Korea, Japan and the Modern world i. Crossroad Publishing. p. 451. ISBN 978-0-8245-1595-9.
  57. ^ Murata, Kiyoaki (1969), Japan's New Buddhism, New York: Weatherhill, Inc., p. 51
  58. ^ Seager, Richard (2006), Encountering the Dharma, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 32–33
  59. ^ Cornille, C. (1998). "Canon formation in new religious movements: the case of the Japanese New Religions". In van der Kooij, A. (ed.). Canonization and decanonization: papers presented to the international conference of the Leiden Institute for the Study of Religions (LISOR), held at Leiden 9–10 January 1997. Leiden: Brill. pp. 283–287. ISBN 978-90-04-11246-9.
  60. ^ Fowler, Jeaneane and Merv (2009). Chanting in the Hillsides. Great Britain: Sussex Academic Press. p. 155.
  61. ^ Strand, Clark (2014). Waking the Buddha. Middleway Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-0-9779245-6-1. Middleway Press is a division of SGI-USA
  62. ^ Dobbelaere, Karel. Soka Gakkai. p. 59.
  63. ^ McLaughlin, Levi (2003). "Faith and Practice: Bringing Religion, Music and Beethoven to Life in Soka Gakkai". Social Science Japan Journal. 6 (2): 6–7. doi:10.1093/ssjj/6.2.161.
  64. ^ Seagar, Richard (2006). Encountering the Dharma: Daisaku Ikeda, The Soka Gakkai, and the Globalization of Buddhist Humanism. University of California Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-520-24577-8.
  65. ^ McLaughlin, Levi (2012). Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions. Brill. p. 272. ISBN 978-90-04-23436-9.
  66. ^ Fowler, Jeanne and Merv (2009). Chanting In The Hillsides. Brighton and Portland: Sussex Academic Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-84519-258-7.
  67. ^ Wilson, Bryan (2000). "The British Movement and Its Members". In Machacek and Wilson (ed.). Global Citizens. Oxford University Press. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-19-924039-5. Liberated from ecclesiastical restraints, Soka Gakkai is enabled to present itself as a much more informed, relaxed and spontaneous worshipping fellowship. In a period when democratic, popular styles have displaced or largely discredited hierarchic structures, the typical meetings of Soka Gakkai reflect the style and form increasingly favored by the public at large.
  68. ^ McLaughlin, Levi (2012). Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions. Brill. p. 277. ISBN 978-90-04-23436-9.
  69. ^ McLaughlin, Levi (2012). "Soka Gakkai in Japan". In Prohl, Inken; Nelson, John (eds.). Handbook of contemporary Japanese religions. Leiden: Brill. p. 272. ISBN 978-90-04-23435-2.
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  79. ^ a b Robert L. Ramseyer. "The Soka Gakkai". "The neighbor complained to the police, who arrested Jinno and a director of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai named Arimura." In Beardsley, Richard K., editor, Studies in Japanese culture I. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965. p. 156
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  82. ^ Murata, Kiyoaki (1969). Japan's New Buddhism: An Objective Account of Soka Gakkai. New York & Tokyo: Walker/Weatherhill. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-8348-0040-3. Toda 'was burning with a desire for vengeance--not against the militarist government of Japan but against an invisible enemy who had caused his own suffering of more than two years as well as his teacher's death in jail and agony to tens of millions of his fellow countrymen.'
  83. ^ Palmer, A. (2012). Buddhist Politics: Japan's Clean Government Party. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6. ISBN 978-94-010-2996-4. Toda's experience in prison had also been one of much suffering, including (it is reported) malnutrition, tuberculosis, asthma, heart trouble, diabetes, hemorrhoids and rheumatism. Besides breaking him physically, his imprisonment and the war had destroyed him financially.
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  113. ^ "New Komeito changes name back to Komeito".
  114. ^ "MAJOR SECURITY SHIFT: Local New Komeito officials oppose collective self-defense". Asahi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 2014-07-27.
  115. ^ Soble, Jonathan (2015-07-16). "Japan Moves to Allow Military Combat for First Time in 70 Years". The New York Times.
  116. ^ Seager, Richard Hughes (2006). Encountering the Dharma: Daisaku Ikeda, Soka Gakkai, and the globalization of Buddhist humanism. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 97–8. ISBN 978-0-520-24577-8. Ikeda took [the free speech issue] seriously and made it the starting point for a process of critical self-examination that resulted in his once again re-creating the Gakkai. ... The free speech issue gave him a platform from which to make shifts in emphasis of such magnitude that some members recall that it took them a year or more to grasp his intent fully.
  117. ^ "Profile: Soka Gakkai". THE WORLD RELIGIONS AND SPIRITUALITY PROJECT (WRSP). Virginia Commonwealth University. On October 12, 1972, during ceremonies marking the opening of the completed Shōhondō at Taisekiji, Ikeda delivered a speech announcing the start of Sōka Gakkai's "Phase Two", describing a turn away from aggressive expansion toward envisioning the Gakkai as an international movement promoting peace through friendship and cultural exchange.
  118. ^ Métraux, Daniel A. (1992). "The Dispute between the Sōka Gakkai and the Nichiren Shōshū Priesthood: A Lay Revolution against a Conservative Clergy". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 19 (4): 325–336. doi:10.18874/jjrs.19.4.1992.325-336. ISSN 0304-1042. JSTOR 30233480.
  119. ^ Dobbelaere, Karel. Soka Gakkai. p. 12. Other criticisms were more fundamental. For example, the president was criticized for having abandoned shakubuku as a method of proselytism in favor of the shoju method.
  120. ^ McLaughlin, Levi (January 2003). "Faith and Practice: Bringing Religion, Music and Beethoven to Life in Soka Gakkai". Social Science Japan Journal. 6 (2): 161–179. doi:10.1093/ssjj/6.2.161.
  121. ^ Harada, Minoru (December 12, 2014). "Reaffirming the Original Spirit of Nichiren Buddhism". World Tribune: 5.
  122. ^ Seager, Richard (2014). Laderman, Gary; León, Luis (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: Tradition, Diversity, and Popular Expression, 2nd Edition. ABC-CLIO. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-61069-110-9.
  123. ^ Lebron, Robyn E. (2012). Searching for spiritual unity...can there be common ground?: a basic internet guide to forty world religions & spiritual practices. Bloomington, Ind.: Crossbooks Publishing. p. 424. ISBN 978-1-4627-1262-5. The SGI shall contribute to peace, culture, and education for the happiness and welfare of all humanity based on the Buddhist respect for the sanctity of human life.
  124. ^ Karel Dobbelaere, "Toward a Pillar Organization?" in Global Citizens, Machacek and Wilson (eds.), page=245
  125. ^ Sato, Aoi. "UN Office for Disarmament Affairs Meets Youth Representatives of Soka Gakkai Japan and of SGI-USA Engaged in Disarmament Issues". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  126. ^ "The Institute of Oriental Philosophy". www.iop.or.jp.
  127. ^ Seagar, Richard (2006), Encountering the Dharma: Daisaku Ikeda, the Soka Gakkai, and the Globalization of Buddhist Humanism, University of California Press, p. 192
  128. ^ Karel Dobbelaere, "Toward a Pillar Organization?" in Global Citizens, Machacek and Wilson (eds.), pp. 243, 250
  129. ^ "Organization Chart". Sokanet. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  130. ^ "A Global Organization". Soka Global (SGI). n.d. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  131. ^ "概要". SOKAnet 創価学会公式サイト. Soka Gakkai. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
  132. ^ Religion in Japan by prefecture, 1996. English language bar table.
  133. ^ "わが国における主な宗教団体名". 文化庁. 1995-12-31. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
  134. ^ Inose, Yūri (2005). "Influential Factors in the Intergenerational Transmission of Religion: The Case of Sōka Gakkai in Hokkaido". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 32 (2): 371–382. ISSN 0304-1042. JSTOR 30234069.
  135. ^ Dobbelaere, Karel (1998). Soka Gakkai. Signature Books. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-56085-153-0.
  136. ^ a b "Minoru Harada appointed as Soka Gakkai President". Soka Gakkai International. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
  137. ^ McLaughlin, Levi (2018). Soka Gakkai's Human Revolution: The Rise of a Mimetic Nation in Modern Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-7542-8.
  138. ^ Benjamin Fulford; David Whelan (9 June 2006). "Sensei's World". Forbes. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
  139. ^ Matsutani, Minoru (2 December 2008). "Soka Gakkai keeps religious, political machine humming". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 11 December 2013. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
  140. ^ Seager, Richard (2006). Encountering the Dharma. University of California Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-52024577-8.
  141. ^ Mette Fisker-Nielsen, pp. 65–66.
  142. ^ Metraux, Daniel (2012). Wellman, James K.; Lombardi, Clark B. (eds.). Religion and human security: a global perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-19-982774-9.
  143. ^ Seager, Richard (2006). Encountering the Dharma: Daisaku Ikeda, the Soka Gakkai, and the Globalization of Buddhist Humanism. University of California Press. p. xii. ISBN 978-0-520-24577-8. Since its founding in the 1930s, the Soka Gakkai has repeatedly found itself at the center of controversies, some linked to major struggles over the future of Japan, others to intense internal religious debates that erupted into public view. Over the course of its history, however, it has also grown into a large, politically active, and very well-established network of institutions, whose membership represents something on the order of a tenth of the Japanese population. One result is that there is a fractured view of the movement in Japan. On one hand, it is seen as a highly articulated, politically and socially engaged movement with an expressed message of human empowerment and global peace. On the other, it has been charged with an array of nefarious activities that range from fellow traveling with Communists and sedition to aspiring to world domination.
  144. ^ Takesato Watanabe, "The Movement and the Japanese Media" in David Machacek and Bryan Wilson (eds.), Global Citizens, Oxford University Press, 2000. "The Soka Gakkai is exceptional in that no other large Japanese religious organization engages in both social and political issues—from the promotion of human rights to the protection of the environment and abolition of nuclear weapons—as actively as it does." (p. 217)
  145. ^ Wellman, James K. Jr.; Lombardi, Clark B., eds. (2012-08-16). Religion and Human Security: A Global Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-19-982775-6. "When I conducted a survey of 235 Doshisha University students a few years ago asking their opinions about the Gakkai and how much they knew about its peace education programs, over 80 percent responded that they had a negative image of the movement and about 60 percent thought that its "peace movement" is little more than promotional propaganda. The few respondents with a positive image were either Soka Gakkai members, were related members, or were friends of members."
  146. ^ Phillip E. Hammond and David W. Machacek, "Soka Gakkai International" in J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann (eds.), Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, 2010, p. 2658. "Daisaku Ikeda (b. 1928), Soka Gakkai's charismatic third president, led the international growth of the movement. Although Ikeda and his successor, Einosuke Akiya, have gone to great lengths to improve the movement's public image, suspicion remains. Soka Gakkai's political involvement through the organ of the Komeito, a political party founded by the Soka Gakkai, and the near godlike reverence that members have for President Ikeda have tended to perpetuate public distrust. Although it has been subjected to a generalized suspicion toward Eastern religious movements in the United States, Europe, and South America, the movement's history outside of Japan has been tranquil by comparison to its Japanese history."
  147. ^ "Religion in the Italian Constitution". Georgetown University. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  148. ^ "Istituto Buddista Italiano Soka Gakkai". Governo Italiano. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
  149. ^ Fujiwara, Hirotatsu (1970). What shall we do about this Japan: I denounce Soka Gakkai. Translated by Worth C Grant. Nisshin Hodo Co. ISBN 978-91-1-013550-5.
  150. ^ Masumi Junnosuke (1995). Contemporary politics in Japan. Translated by Lonny E. Carlile. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-520-05854-5.
  151. ^ Sakai, Noboru (2017-08-27). "The Roots of the Contemporary Image of Japanese Cults". electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies. Retrieved 2024-01-09. Note 1: ...Regardless of its reputation since the end of World War II (both positive and negative), Soka Gakkai began to be called a cult by some people after the Tokyo subway sarin attack and the clear appearance of Aum Supreme Truth, so at least Soka Gakkai itself is not the root image of cults in Japan independently, though it may also, even partly, be the case that the early stage of Soka Gakkai gave some sort of conceptual image of a cult.
  152. ^ French, Howard W. (14 November 1999). "A Sect's Political Rise Creates Uneasiness in Japan (Published 1999)". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2024. a dictatorship built around the person of one man
  153. ^ French, Howard W. (14 November 1999). "A Sect's Political Rise Creates Uneasiness in Japan (Published 1999)". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2024.. "Members of the group have used arson and a bomb threat against temples of rival Buddhist groups. Soka Gakkai has also tried to block the publication of critical books, and members were convicted of wiretapping the house of the Communist Party leader. A spokesman said the bomb threat and arson incidents involved individuals with histories of mental illness and denied that Soka Gakkai had ever ordered violence or harassment."
  154. ^ "Monumental Error? How a Statue Honoring a Controversial Japanese Religious Leader Wound Up in a Chicago Park". Newcity. 6 December 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2024.
  155. ^ Hideko Takayama (1996-07-08). "A Buddhist Leader Is Accused Of Rape". Newsweek.
  156. ^ "Soka Gakkai head Ikeda allegedly raped follower". Japan Times. 1996-06-05.

Bibliography

  • Sōka Gakkai's Human Revolution. The Rise of a Mimetic Nation in Modern Japan, Levi McLaughlin · Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2019, 236 p
  • Sōka Gakkai in America: Accommodation and Conversion By Phillip E. Hammond and David W. Machacek. London: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-829389-5
  • "The Sōka Gakkai: Buddhism and the Creation of a Harmonious and Peaceful Society" by Daniel A. Metraux in Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Christopher S. Queen and Sallie B. King, eds. SUNY Press, 1996.
  • The New Believers: A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions. David V Barrett. Octopus Publishing Group, 2003
  • The Lotus and the Maple Leaf: The Sōka Gakkai in Canada by Daniel A. Metraux (University Press of America, 1996)
  • Sōka Gakkai kaibō ("Dissecting Sōka Gakkai") by the editors of Aera (Asahi Shimbun, 2000). ISBN 4-02-261286-X (Japanese)
  • A Public Betrayed: An Inside Look at Japanese Media Atrocities and Their Warnings to the West. Adam Gamble & Takesato Watanabe. Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2004. ISBN 0-89526-046-8
  • (SERA) Southeast Review of Asian Studies 29 (2007). "Religion, Politics, and Constitutional Reform in Japan," by Daniel Metraux, 157–72.
  • Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, eds. 2002.
  • Proselytizing and the Limits of Religious Pluralism in Contemporary Asia By Juliana Finucane, R. Michael Feener, pages 103 122.
  • Neo Yeow Ann Aaron "Studying Soka: Buddhist Conversionn And Religious Change In Singapore" (PDF).[permanent dead link‍]

Further reading

Books

  • Strand, Clark: Waking the Buddha – how the most dynamic and empowering buddhist movement in history is changing our concept of religion. Strand examines how the Soka Gakkai, based on the insight that "Buddha is life", has evolved a model in which religion serves the needs of its practitioners, rather than the practitioners adhering to dogma and traditions for their own sake. Middleway Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-9779245-6-1
  • Editors of AERA: Sōkagakkai kaibai (創価学会解剖: "Dissecting Sōkagakkai"). Asahi Shimbun-sha, October 1995. ISBN 978-4-02-261286-1. AERA is a weekly investigative news magazine published by one of Japan's leading news organizations; this book attempts to present a dry, fair assessment of Sōkagakkai and Daisaku Ikeda and contains several interviews with Gakkai leaders.
  • Shimada, Hiroki: Sōkagakkai no jitsuryoku (創価学会の実力: "The true extent of Sōkagakkai's power"). Shinchosha, August 2006. ISBN 4-02-330372-0. Argues that the Sōka Gakkai is not (or is no longer) as powerful as many of its opponents fear, and that it is losing ground internally as all but the most dedicated are turned off by the leadership and fewer members need the organization for social bonding. Also notes that it is becoming more like a civic rather than a religious organization, and that inactive members do not resign because they want to avoid the ostracism and harassment that can result.
  • Shimada, Hiroki: Kōmeitō vs. Sōkagakkai (公明党vs.創価学会: "The Kōmeitō and the Sōka Gakkai"). Asahi Shinsho, June 2007. ISBN 978-4-02-273153-1. Describes the relationship between Kōmeitō and Sōka Gakkai and the development of their history. Touches on the Sōka Gakkai–Nichiren Shōshū split, describing it as the result of a power struggle and financial constraints, as well as on the organized harassment of opponents by Sōka Gakkai members, the organization's use of its media vehicles to vilify opponents, and Ikeda's demand for unquestioning loyalty.
  • Tamano, Kazushi: Sōkagakkai no Kenkyū (創価学会の研究: "Research on the Sōkagakkai"). Kodansha Gendai Shinsho, 2008. ISBN 978-4-06-287965-1. This book is an attempt to review scholarly studies of Sōka Gakkai from the 1950s to the 1970s and shifts in perceptions of the organization as journalists took over from scholars. Tamano takes the perspective of a social scientist and describes Sōka Gakkai as a socio-political phenomenon. He is also somewhat critical of some views Shimada expressed in the latter's recent publications.
  • Yamada, Naoki: Sōkagakkai towa nanika (創価学会とは何か: "Explaining Sōkagakkai"). Shinchosha, April 2004. ISBN 4-10-467301-3
  • Yatomi, Shin: Buddhism In A New Light. Examines Soka Gakkai interpretations of Buddhist concepts. World Tribune Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-932911-14-5

News media (websites)

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