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Civil Aeronautics Board

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Civil Aeronautics Board
Seal of the Civil Aeronautics Board
Agency overview
Formed1939
Preceding agencies
  • Aeronautics Branch
  • Bureau of Air Commerce
  • Bureau of Air Mail
  • Air Safety Board (1940)
Dissolved1985 (39 years ago)
Superseding agencies
JurisdictionU.S. federal government
HeadquartersWashington, D.C.
Parent agencyFederal government of the United States

The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) was an agency of the federal government of the United States, formed in 1940 from a split of the Civil Aeronautics Authority[1] and abolished in 1985, that regulated aviation services (including scheduled passenger airline service[2]) and, until the establishment of the National Transportation Safety Board in 1967, conducted air accident investigations. The agency was headquartered in Washington, D.C.

Powers

[edit]
An image of an aircraft, representing aeronautical functions, at the Herbert C. Hoover Building, where the agency was initially headquartered. The building was (and is) home to the Department of Commerce, which regulated airlines prior to the 1938 Act

The authority of the Civil Aeronautics Board to regulate airlines was established by the Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938. The 1938 Act was amended by the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, but the main effect of that was to establish the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), which among other things regulated (as it still does) airline operations and safety. The 1966 Department of Transportation Act, which established the US Department of Transportation (DOT), had a bigger impact on the CAB. The 1966 Act established the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) as part of DOT, which absorbed the CAB safety function, which was to investigate most airline accidents. Unlike the FAA, which (renamed as the Federal Aviation Administration) became part of DOT in the 1966 Act, the CAB remained an independent government agency.[3]

While CAB regulation suppressed free competition, it provided security for the existing airlines, avoided gluts and shortages of passengers on certain routes, and (partly by allowing airlines to carry air mail) secured airline service for communities that would have otherwise been served less, or not have been served at all (due to low passenger traffic or other reasons).[2][4]

CAB authority included:[5][2][4]

  • Entry Companies could not enter the airline industry, either for domestic or foreign (between the US and foreign points) routes unless certificated by the Board. The Act stated: "No air carrier shall engage in any air transportation unless there is in force a certificate issued by the Board authorizing such air carrier to engage in such transportation." However, as described below, the Board also had the ability to provide exemptions from this and other Act requirements. The Board, when issuing a certificate, was required to determine a carrier was "fit, willing and able" to provide air transportation, that it would obey the Board and Act, and that the certificate issuance was required by "public necessity and convenience". Further, the Board had to specify for each certificate the end and intermediate points of all routes. Thus the CAB not only determined entry into the industry, but also the specific routes a carrier served. It could also put limitations on that service. For instance, the CAB could approve a route from A to B to C but not allow the carrier to fly nonstop from A to C.[6]
  • Exit An airline could not leave a market without CAB approval.[7]
  • Fares The CAB had broad authority to set or limit fares. There was a fairly uniform national fare structure based on distance flown set by the CAB. In particular, carriers serving the same markets were held to the same fares, so competition on the basis of fares did not exist, other than in the final years of the CAB when it experimented with liberalization. Fares also tended to underprice short-haul markets and overprice longer-haul markets.[8][9]
  • Mergers The CAB had the authority to approve or disapprove mergers, not only between airlines, but between an airline and any other common carrier (e.g. a bus line or a railroad) or a company engaged in any other phase of aviation (like an aircraft manufacturer). Moreover "merger" was defined broadly, encompassing more general concepts of common control.[10][11]
  • Interlocking relationships Any interlocking relationship, such as common directors, between airlines, or between an airline and a common carrier, or a company in any other phase of aviation, required CAB approval.[12]
  • Inter-carrier agreement All agreements between carriers had to be filed with the CAB, which evaluated whether such agreements were in the public interest. If not, they were not approved. In 1970, the CAB reviewed over 1000 such agreements, many of a routine nature such as the cooperation of airlines at a particular airport. This could also work, on occasion, to shield airlines from anti-trust laws.[13]
  • Unfair competition and Misleading business practices. The Act authorized the Board to investigate and correct such behavior.[14]
  • Subsidy The Board was authorized to subsidize carriers. As shown below, in 1978 the CAB paid subsidies to a dozen carriers, including nine that flew jet equipment.[15]
  • Exemption The Board had broad authority to provide exemptions from provisions of the Act. For example, originally all US non-scheduled carriers were authorized this way, the Board simply exempting them from certification.[16] As discussed below, in 1952, the CAB also simply carved out a blanket exemption for airlines flying "small" aircraft in scheduled service (thereby birthing the commuter airline business).

Airlines had no ability to make competitive decisions, absent CAB approval, on choice of route or fare charged on any particular route.[17]

Not included

[edit]

The Act also prevented the CAB from regulating certain things: frequency, equipment, accommodations and facilities. It was up to the carrier to determine what aircraft it flew and how often and what airport or ticket facilities it built/rented, and so forth. However, the CAB did generally require a minimum adequate service, e.g. often two flights/day, in a market.[18]

History

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The Herbert C. Hoover Building, where the CAB was once headquartered

The Civil Aeronautics Authority Act of 1938 superseded the Watres Act, which had regulated commercial aviation since the mid-1920s, and created a new agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority.[19][20] The agency was renamed in 1940,[21] due to a merger with the Air Safety Board.[22] It became an independent agency under Reorganization Plans Nos. III and IV of 1940, effective on June 30, 1940.[23] The Air Safety Board had formed in 1938.

Charles S. Murphy (Right), Chair of the Board and Bobbie R. Allen, Director of the Bureau of Safety, circa 1966

Other predecessor agencies included the Aeronautics Branch (1926–1934), the Bureau of Air Commerce (1934–1938), and the Bureau of Air Mail, Interstate Commerce Commission (1934–38).[24]

The first air accident investigation led by the CAB was the 1940 Lovettsville air disaster.[citation needed]

Some duties were transferred to the Federal Aviation Agency in 1958.[21]

The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was established in 1967, taking over air accident investigation duties.[21]

Deregulation

[edit]

In 1975, Senator Ted Kennedy, in his capacity as Chair of the Subcommittee on Administrative Practice and Procedure of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, assisted by Stephen Breyer, then a counsel to the judiciary committee (and later a Supreme Court Justice), held widely-reported hearings on the CAB.[25] These hearings were later seen as the beginning of the process which ended in airline deregulation by the end of 1978.[26] These publicized, among much else, the success that carriers like Southwest Airlines and Pacific Southwest Airlines had as intrastate airlines in Texas and California, despite the much lower fares they charged,[27] and the degree to which the CAB acted primarily in the interests of the airlines, rather than consumers[28] (the CAB chair until 1974, Robert D. Timm, prioritized ensuring scheduled airlines made a 12% return on investment[29] and was caught accepting a Bermuda golf vacation from those airlines[30]—Kennedy's subcommittee referred Timm to the Justice Department for possible prosecution.)[31] Links to the transcripts of those hearings, the associated evidence and exhibits, and the report that Kennedy and Breyer wrote, are in External links below.

Also in 1975, President Ford appointed John E. Robson as CAB Chair. Under the chairmanship of John Robson, the Civil Aeronautics Board "in April 1976 did the unthinkable, becoming the first regulatory body to support deregulation," which President Gerald Ford first spurred in February 1975 with a proposal to abolish the CAB altogether.[32] Robson was followed as CAB Chair by Cornell University professor Alfred E. Kahn, appointed by President Jimmy Carter. Kahn was a well-known specialist in regulatory economics, having written one of the standard texts[33] and had previously been chairman of the New York Public Service Commission, the body regulating utilities in New York State. The CAB continued to be a focus of the early deregulation movement, and its dissolution was one of the most conspicuous pioneering event of that movement.[34][4][35] The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 specified that the CAB would eventually be disestablished — the first federal regulatory regime, since the 1930s, to be totally dismantled[35][34] — and this happened on January 1, 1985.[36] The remaining tasks were transferred to the Secretary of Transportation except for a few going to the U.S. Postal Service.[21]

Airlines not regulated by the CAB

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The CAB regulated almost all commercial air transportation in the US, but there were some exceptions.

Air taxis

[edit]

The CAB chose not to regulate airlines flying "small aircraft". This was formalized in Part 298 of the Board's economic regulations, which in 1952 gave a blanket authorization for any airline operating an aircraft with a maximum gross takeoff weight of 12,500 lbs or less. Such airlines were originally known as "air taxis", later as commuter airlines or Part 298 carriers. Confusingly, "air taxi" was also the term by which the CAB referred to Aspen Airways and Wright Air Lines (after they became certificated carriers) within the CAB's taxonomy of certificated scheduled airlines (see "Airline categories" below). However, in 1972 the CAB expanded this category to include aircraft of 30 passengers or fewer, with a payload of less than 7,500 lbs.[37] Such carriers did have to obtain Federal Aviation Administration operational/safety certification but were otherwise able to fly wherever they pleased.

The CAB would, on occasion, also exempt air-taxi or commuter operators to operate aircraft larger than the limits. For instance, in 1971, it exempted Executive Airlines and Air New England (at that time a commuter carrier) to fly propeller aircraft up to 44 seats to expand service in New England.[38]

On five occasions, the CAB certificated former air taxi/commuter airlines to fly larger aircraft. These airlines were then regulated by the CAB like any other CAB carrier:

Intrastate airlines

[edit]
Main article: Intrastate airline

An airline that restricted flying to within one state and took other steps to minimize participation in interstate commerce could avoid CAB regulation and fly as an intrastate airline. In the case of air taxis, the CAB chose not to regulate. In the case of intrastate airlines, it was legally unable to. Restriction of flying to a single state was not sufficient to avoid CAB regulation; the additional measures to avoid interstate commerce were critical. Furthermore, flying within a single state was generally interpreted strictly. An aircraft flying outside the boundaries of that one state could trigger CAB authority, including, in the case of Hawaii, flying overwater between the islands, which was upheld in court as being intrinsically interstate commerce because the Federal government had domain over the seas.

Note that the Federal government, while not providing economic regulation over intrastate carriers, did regulate them from an operational/safety standpoint. For those purposes intrastate airlines were regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration just like any other carrier.

Uncertificated carriers

[edit]
Part 45 carrier Golden State Airlines C-46 in 1958

Uncertificated carriers, known by a variety of names over time, such as contract carriers or Part 45 carriers, were airlines which escaped CAB regulation by not being common carriers - in other words, they did not hold themselves out to the public as a carrier. Zantop Air Transport was an example of such a company, flying aircraft on behalf of the US automakers on a private basis (before it acquired a supplemental certificate in 1962). "Part 45" was a reference to the then Civil Aviation Regulations under which the then Federal Aviation Agency regulated the operations/safety of such non-common carrier operators.[44]

Over time, the Civil Aviation Regulations (subsequently the Federal Aviation Regulations) changed. Instead of Part 45, such uncertificated carriers were moved to being regulated under Part 42. They then became known as Part 42 carriers.[45] Finally, the regulations were completely revamped, with most commercial operations moved to Part 121. Such operators were then known as Part 121 commercial operators or simply just commercial operators. A prominent example of such a carrier was Zantop International Airlines (ZIA), which started in 1972 as a Part 121 commercial operator, uncertificated by the CAB.[46]

The CAB regularly enforced its powers against uncertificated carriers engaged in activities the CAB saw as making them common carriers. For instance, in February 1961, the issued a cease-and-desist order to, among others, Trans Global Airlines, Inc. aka Golden State Airlines, a Part 45 carrier, for carrying passengers to the Dunes Hotel in Las Vegas for "free". The fact that transportation was provided as part of the cost of accommodation did not make the airline any less a common carrier, and therefore guilty of providing interstate air transportation without a CAB certificate.[47] The results of such investigations were not necessarily a foregone conclusion. In 1976, the CAB ended a long investigation by deciding ZIA was, in fact, not a common carrier (and thus did not require certification), going against the decision of its own administrative law judge.[48] Ironically, this happened only a year before ZIA separately applied for and received certification as a supplemental air carrier.[46]

Air travel clubs

[edit]
Nomads was one of the longest lasting air travel clubs, incorporated in 1965 and liquidated in 2011.[49]

Air travel clubs were membership organizations, nominally private, that had their own aircraft and ran trips for members. In 1968, the FAA instituted Part 123 of the Federal Aviation Regulations under which air travel clubs had their own operational requirements.[50] Starting in the early 1970s, the CAB went after some of the largest air travel clubs for being de-facto common carriers. In 1973, it shut down Voyager 1000, a large Indiana-based air travel club.[51] Voyager, which had a fleet comprising a Boeing 720, two Lockheed Electras and some piston aircraft and its own terminal at Indianapolis Airport, unsuccessfully appealed to the federal courts.[52] The chief pilot of Voyager was George Mikelsons, who left to found what later became ATA Airlines. The CAB went on to shut two other large clubs in 1974[53] and 1975.[54] Notwithstanding these enforcement actions, in November 1979 (within the first year of deregulation) there were still 11 air travel clubs operationally regulated under Part 123, though by May 1980 it had dropped to seven.[55]

Airline categories

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The CAB divided the airlines it regulated into categories according to the roles they were meant to play. The following draws from the CAB's FY 1977 Report to Congress dated May 1978,[56] and so reflects the state of CAB airline certification just prior to deregulation.

Supplemental air carrier

[edit]

The first split was between scheduled and non-scheduled (charter carriers). The CAB referred to non-scheduled carriers, in 1978, as supplemental air carriers. Prior to 1955, the CAB called them irregular air carriers.[57] Scheduled carriers were also free to offer charters. Throughout the history of the CAB, the supplementals constantly attempted to become scheduled carriers and the CAB constantly rejected them. There were also tight restrictions on supplementals, designed to protect the scheduled carriers.

1978 CAB Supplemental Air Carriers, Revenues and Fleet
Airline[58] Op revenue (USD mm)[59] Fleet (bold indicates jet type)
Capitol International Airways 87.0 12 DC-8[60]
Evergreen International Airlines 40.9 6 DC-8, 3 DC-9, 4 Lockheed Electra, 7 CV-580[61]
McCulloch International Airlines 1.2 (1)[62]
Modern Air Transport (2)
Overseas National Airways 28.3 (1)[63]
Rich International Airlines(3) 2.9 2 DC-6, 3 C-46[64]
Southern Air Transport N/A 2 Lockheed L-100-20, 1 Lockheed L-100-30[65]
Trans International Airlines 231.2 3 DC-10, 14 DC-8, 11 Lockheed L-100-30, 9 Lockheed Electra[66]
World Airways 126.6 3 DC-10, 5 DC-8[67]
Zantop International Airlines 10.3 5 DC-8, 16 Lockheed Electra, 11 DC-6, 14 CV-640[68]
(1) Out of business by year end (2) Service suspended (3) Listed by CAB as Airlines, but all other sources say Airways

International air carrier

[edit]

Scheduled carriers were split between domestic and international. Two carriers were exclusively international: Air Micronesia (a subsidiary of Continental Airlines) and cargo carrier Seaboard. One carrier was almost exclusively international: Pan Am and, until deregulation, was not permitted to sell tickets for transport within the continental US. While it could fly aircraft from, say, New York to Los Angeles, it could not sell tickets between New York and Los Angeles despite having significant international operations in both cities. All other international carriers were also domestic carriers. There was a split within international between passenger airlines (which were always free to carry cargo and sometimes flew pure cargo aircraft) and cargo airlines.

Trunk carrier

[edit]
Main article: Trunk carrier

Domestic had many subcategories. The original CAB scheduled carriers were known as trunkline carriers, trunklines, trunk airlines or simply just trunks, with most (but not all) such carriers having certificates dating back to 1938, the date of the Civil Aeronautics Authority Act that created the CAB. These were carriers such as United Air Lines, American, TWA, etc, all with origins going back to the 1920s and 1930s. For a summary, see the table below.

Local service carrier

[edit]
Main article: local service carrier

After World War II, the CAB certificated a second set of scheduled carriers, the local service carriers. In theory, local service airlines served smaller routes than the trunklines, though most trunklines tended to have some legacy points on their networks that were quite small. Over time, the CAB allowed local service carriers to compete on some routes with trunklines and some local service carriers became sizeable airlines. However, as shown in the table below, in 1978, just prior to deregulation, the largest local service carrier Allegheny (soon to rename itself USAir) was still smaller in revenue terms than the smallest trunk, National, and basic operating statistics show the local service carriers as flying distinctly less capacity, smaller aircraft and shorter routes than the trunks.

Local service carriers were also the biggest recipients of CAB subsidies, as shown below. In 1978, the CAB paid a total of $66.3 million in subsidies to airlines[69] (over $275 million in 2024 dollars) of which $58.5 million was paid to local service carriers, equivalent to over 40% of local service carrier operating profits that year.[70]

Other domestic certificate categories

[edit]

Other CAB domestic categories included intra-Alaskan, Hawaiian, helicopter, regional, air taxi, and cargo. Historically there was a territorial category, superseded by Hawaiian and Intra-Alaskan after Hawaii and Alaska became states. Some carriers had more than one domestic status. For instance, Alaska Airlines was listed as both an Alaska carrier and a trunk, however, for the purposes of 1978 CAB statistics it was counted as an Alaska carrier.

1978 CAB scheduled carriers

[edit]

The wide variety of carriers in the table below hints at problems with just one facet of CAB regulation. Tiny Alaskan back-country carriers like Munz Northern and Kodiak-Western were subject to the same kind of proceedings as huge airlines like United and American. 1975 certification proceedings for Munz Northern were memorialized in 32 pages of CAB reports, encompassing the deliberations of the (usually five but in this case four) member CAB board itself, plus the earlier deliberations of an administrative law judge in front of whom six people appeared, representing Munz and two other interested parties. At the time, Munz had six aircraft, each carrying 10 people or fewer.[71] Further, Munz then had the same reporting requirement as carriers like United, all the usual reams of data that had to be sent to the CAB, for a carrier a tiny fraction of the size.

1978 CAB Scheduled Air Carriers, Certificate Types & Dates, Revenues, Subsidies, Select Statistics & Fleet
Airline(1)[72] Certificate type[72] Certificate year(2)[72] Op rev(3)[73][74] Subsidy(4)[73] Sched ASMs (bn)(5)[75] Avg Seats/ Mile(6)[75] Stage length (mi)(7)[75] Fleet (bold text indicates jet)
American Airlines trunk/intl 1938 2,736.4 45.49 154.2 799.8 8 B747, 31 DC-10, 67 B707, 145 727; freighters 3 B747, 8 B707[76]
Braniff Airways trunk/intl 1938 966.5 17.84 138.5 583.1 3 B747, 14 DC-8, 93 B727[77]
Continental Air Lines trunk/intl 1938 772.0 14.53 155.2 618.5 15 DC-10, 51 B727[78]
Delta Air Lines trunk/intl 1938 2,241.6 37.55 151.5 457.9 22 L-1011, 23 DC-8, 110 B727, 52 DC-9[79]
Eastern Air Lines trunk/intl 1938 2,379.6 39.06 135.5 509.1 34 L-1011, 5 A300, 127 B727, 75 DC-9[80]
National Airlines trunk/intl 1938 636.4 13.83 174.1 694.5 15 DC-10, 38 B727[81]
Northwest Airlines trunk/intl 1938 794.4 14.30 226.2 667.2 15 B747, 22 DC-10, 62 B727; freighters 4 B747[82]
Pan American World Airways intl/trunk/AK/HI 1938 2,281.8 34.42 299.0 1,509.2 38 B747, 38 B707, 15 B727; freighters 5 B747[83]
Trans World Airlines trunk/intl 1938 2,474.7 42.65 165.0 897.1 11 B747, 28 L-1011, 94 B707, 80 B727, 14 DC-9[84]
United Air Lines trunk/intl 1938 3,523.4 61.94 161.2 694.8 18 B747, 42 DC-10, 56 DC-8, 125 B727, 59 B737; freighters 14 DC-8[85]
Western Air Lines trunk/intl 1938 834.5 15.76 147.9 645.6 9 DC-10, 12 B707, 62 B727[86]
Air Micronesia intl 1971 (8)
Allegheny Airlines local svc/intl 1949 566.8 6.72 90.4 242.5 10 B727, 45 DC-9, 30 BAC 1-11[87]
Frontier Airlines local svc/intl 1946 287.2 12.2 3.77 81.6 230.2 2 B727, 35 B737, 27 CV-580[88]
Hughes Air Corp dba Hughes Airwest local svc/intl 1968 313.2 7.6 4.18 94.6 282.0 9 B727, 40 DC-9, 6 F-27[89]
North Central Airlines local svc/intl 1947 298.5 12.0 3.09 90.0 147.6 34 DC-9, 24 CV-580[90]
Ozark Air Lines local svc 1950 229.7 10.0 2.70 87.3 195.9 32 DC-9, 13 FH-227[91]
Piedmont Airlines local svc 1947 205.6 9.3 2.62 85.7 180.7 6 B727, 27 B737, 19 NAMC YS-11[92]
Southern Airways local svc/intl 1948 188.5 4.3 2.45 76.0 206.5 30 DC-9, 8 Swearingen Metro[93]
Texas International Airlines local svc/intl 1946 181.7 3.1 2.60 90.8 304.5 26 DC-9, 3 CV-600[94]
Alaska Airlines Alaska/trunk 1942 83.5 0.3 1.19 105.9 566.5 11 B727[95]
Kodiak-Western Alaska Airlines Alaska 1960 1.7 0.4 (9) 3.0 38.3 12 assorted piston-powered aircraft[96]
Munz Northern Airlines Alaska 1976 2.9 (9) 9.0 76.8 17 small piston-powered aircraft [97]
Reeve Aleutian Airways Alaska 1948 13.2 0.08 49.1 420.0 3 Lockheed Electra, 2 NAMC YS-11, 2 C-46[64]
Wien Air Alaska Alaska 1942 63.7 1.8 0.43 51.8 151.5 7 B737, 2 FH-227, 1 F-27, 1 Grumman Mallard[98]
Aloha Airlines Hawaiian 1949 60.7 0.56 119.5 119.2 10 B737[99]
Hawaiian Airlines Hawaiian 1938 89.9 0.72 136.6 119.8 12 DC-9, 5 Lockheed Electra; 1 Shorts 330[100]
Air Midwest regional 1976 5.3 1.5 0.04 16.9 115.8 5 Swearingen Metro, 1 Cessna 206[101]
Air New England regional 1975 20.8 3.8 0.13 29.9 82.3 8 FH-227, 10 DHC-6 Twin Otter[102]
Aspen air taxi 1967 7.8 0.05 46.7 116.8 10 CV-580[103]
Wright air taxi 1972 4.9 (9) 40.5 100.3 6 CV-600[104]
New York Airways helicopter 1952 8.2 0.01 25.0 12.6 3 Sikorsky S-61L[105]
Airlift International(10) domestic cargo 1956 84.3 924.0 8 DC-8, 1 B727[106]
Flying Tiger domestic/intl cargo 1949 404.2 1,377.0 6 B747, 19 DC-8[107]
Seaboard intl cargo 1955 118.6 2,658.9 3 B747, 2 DC-10, 5 DC-8[108]
(1) Airline name per CAB in 1978 (2) Earliest awarded certificate. Each attribute had a separate certification date (3) USD mm (4) USD mm, included within operating revenue (5) Available Seat Miles, an ASM is one seat available for sale flown one mile (6) Average seats per flight weighted by miles flown (7) Average flight distance (8) Included in Continental revenue (9) Rounds to 0.00 in billions (10) CAB shows no intl certificate, but Airlift had 1978 intl revenue, and "intl" is in the name

Offices

[edit]
The Universal South Building at 1825 Connecticut Avenue NW. once housed the CAB headquarters.

The agency had its headquarters in the Universal Building in Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C.[109][110] The agency had moved there by May 1959.[111] Previously it had been headquartered in the Commerce Building (a.k.a. the Herbert C. Hoover Building),[112] and its offices were in several buildings.[111] After moving into the Universal Building, CAB leased space there. By 1968 the agency had acquired an additional approximately 2,000 square feet (190 m2) of space in the same building, resulting in additional rent expenses.[113]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ https://www.faa.gov/about/history/brief_history
  2. ^ a b c Stringer, David H., "Non-Skeds: The Story of America's Supplemental Airlines, Part 1: Industry in the United States," Archived 2022-01-15 at the Wayback Machine AAHS Journal, vol. 64, no.4 (Winter 2019) journal of the American Aviation Historical Society, excerpt online, retrieved April 8, 2020
  3. ^ Douglas, George W.; Miller, James C. III (1974). Economic Regulation of Domestic Air Transport: Theory and Policy. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution. pp. 188, 192. ISBN 0815757247.
  4. ^ a b c Brown, John Howard (assoc. prof., Dept of Finance & Economics, Georgia Southern University) (with credit to Alfred Kahn, last CAB Chairman) "Jimmy Carter, Alfred Kahn, and Airline Deregulation: Anatomy of a Policy Success," Summer 2014, The Independent Review, vol. 19, no. 1, ISSN 1086-1653, pp. 85–99
  5. ^ Bailey, Elizabeth E.; Graham, David R.; Kaplan, Daniel P. (May 1983). Deregulating the Airlines: An Economic Analysis (Report). Civil Aeronautics Board. p. 7. hdl:2027/ien.35556021337282.
  6. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 199–200.
  7. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 200.
  8. ^ BG&K 1983, p. 13–14.
  9. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 200–201.
  10. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 201.
  11. ^ Caves, Richard E. (1962). Air Transport and its Regulators. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 131. LCCN 62017216.
  12. ^ Caves 1962, p. 132.
  13. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 201–202.
  14. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 202.
  15. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 198.
  16. ^ "Investigation of Nonscheduled Air Services". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 6. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 1049–1059. July 1944 – May 1946. hdl:2027/osu.32437011657786.
  17. ^ BG&K 1983, p. 14.
  18. ^ Douglas-Miller 1974, p. 202–203.
  19. ^ "Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 ~ P.L. 75-706" (PDF). 52 Stat. 973 ~ Senate Bill 3845. Legis★Works. June 23, 1938. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 20, 2015. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
  20. ^ "Col. L. H. Watres, 82, World War Hero, Dies". Scranton Tribune. Scranton, PA. February 7, 1964. pp. 3, 15 – via Newspapers.com.
  21. ^ a b c d The United States Government Manual 2009-2010. Government Printing Office, October 30, 2009. ISBN 9780160839498. p. 581.
  22. ^ Kaps, Robert W. Air Transport Labor Relations (Southern Illinois University Press series in aviation management, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale). SIU Press, 1997. ISBN 9780809317769. p. 197.
  23. ^ Gerhard Peters; John T. Woolley. "Franklin D. Roosevelt: "Statement on the Civil Aeronautics Authority Under the New Reorganization Plans.," April 30, 1940". The American Presidency Project. University of California - Santa Barbara. Archived from the original on October 17, 2017. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
  24. ^ "Records of the Civil Aeronautics Board." United States National Archives. Retrieved on September 16, 2014.
  25. ^ Petzinger, Thomas (1996). Hard Landing: The Epic Contest For Power and Profits That Plunged the Airlines into Chaos. Random House. pp. 79–85. ISBN 9780307774491.
  26. ^ Brown, Anthony E. (1987). The Politics of Airline Deregulation. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN 0870495321.
  27. ^ Civil Aeronautics Board Practices and Procedures: Report of the Subcommittee on Administrative Practice and Procedure of the Committee on the Judiciary of the United States Senate (Report). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1975. pp. 40–53. hdl:2027/mdp.39015078076794.
  28. ^ Report 1975, p. 178.
  29. ^ "Timm Sees Airline Profits Spread, with 12% Average". Aviation Week & Space Technology. 98 (21): 23. 21 May 1973. ISSN 0005-2175.
  30. ^ Petzinger 1996, p. 21.
  31. ^ Senate Study Says C.A.B. Broke Rules for Airlines New York Times, 30 June 1975
  32. ^ Smith, Richard Norton (2023). An Ordinary Man: The Surprising Life and Historic Presidency of Gerald R. Ford. New York: Harper. pp. 548–551. ISBN 978-0-06-268416-5.
  33. ^ Kahn, Alfred E. (1970–1971). The Economics of Regulation: Principles and Institutions. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471454303.
  34. ^ a b Lang, Susan S. "Economist Alfred Kahn, 'father of airline deregulation' and former presidential adviser, dies at 93," December 27, 2010, Cornell Chronicle, retrieved April 9, 2020
  35. ^ a b Hershy Jr., Robert D. (December 28, 2010). "Alfred E. Kahn Dies at 93; Prime Mover of Airline Deregulation". New York Times.
  36. ^ Kane, Robert M. Air Transportation. Kendall Hunt, 2003. ISBN 0787288810, 9780787288815. p. 121 (a part of the "Civil Aeronautics Board" section).
  37. ^ "Part 298 Weight Limit Investigation". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 60. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 142–194. August–December 1972. hdl:2027/mdp.39015007658480.
  38. ^ CAB Authorizes Prop Aircraft for N.E. Line, Fitchburg Sentinel, April 23, 1971
  39. ^ "Denver-Aspen Service Investigation". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 46. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 273–285. December 1966 – June 1967. hdl:2027/osu.32437011658164.
  40. ^ "TAG Airlines, Cleveland-Detroit Certificate". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 52. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 579–609. August–November 1969. hdl:2027/osu.32435022360226.
  41. ^ "Reopened TAG-Wright Case". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 58. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 525–544. September 1971 – February 1972. hdl:2027/osu.32437011657562.
  42. ^ "New England Service Investigation". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 65 (1). Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 220–460. June–October 1974. hdl:2027/osu.32437011658453.
  43. ^ "Air Midwest Certification Proceeding". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 71 (2). Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 1207–1361. July–November 1976. hdl:2027/osu.32437011657802.
  44. ^ "Zantop Air Transport, Inc., and Coastal Air Lines, Certificate Transfer". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 36. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 139–168. April–September 1962. hdl:2027/uc1.b2938527.
  45. ^ "Intercontinental, U.S., Inc., Enforcement Proceeding". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 41. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 600. August 1964 – January 1965. hdl:2027/osu.32437011658412.
  46. ^ a b "DOD Contract-Eligible Certification Case". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 74. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 139–168. April–September 1962. hdl:2027/osu.32437011657653.
  47. ^ "M & R Investment Company, Inc., d.b.a. Dunes Hotel and Casino et al., Enforcement Proceeding". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 33. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 1–23. February–May 1961. hdl:2027/osu.32437011657570.
  48. ^ "Automotive Cargo Investigation". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 70 Part 2. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 1540–1647. March–June 1976. hdl:2027/osu.32437011657901.
  49. ^ Nomads travel club files to liquidate, Detroit Free Press, 2 March 2011
  50. ^ "FAA Historical Chronology, 1926–1996: item for 14 October 1968" (PDF). faa.gov. Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  51. ^ "Voyager et al., Enforcement". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 61. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 252–282. January–April 1973. hdl:2027/osu.32437011658651.
  52. ^ Voyager 1000 v. C.A.B. (cert den 1974), 489 F.2d 792 (7th Cir. 1973).
  53. ^ "Club International et al., Enforcement". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 65 Part 1. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 722–782. June–October 1974. hdl:2027/osu.32437011658453.
  54. ^ "Aeronauts International Travel Club, Enforcement". Civil Aeronautics Board Reports. 67 Part 1. Washington, DC: U.S. General Printing Office: 132–208. April–July 1975. hdl:2027/osu.32437011658255.
  55. ^ "Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, 14 CFR Parts 43, 91, 121, 123, 125, 135 and 145 [Docket 19779; Amendments Nos. 43-21, 91-169, 121-164, 123-9, New Parts 125, 135-7, and 145-17] Certification and Operation Rules for Certain Large Airplanes; Establishment of Part and Miscellaneous Amendments to Existing Regulations" (PDF). Federal Register. 45 (198): 67216. 9 October 1980. ISSN 0097-6326.
  56. ^ Annual Report: Fiscal Year 1977 and Transitional Quarter (Report). Civil Aeronautics Board. May 1978. hdl:2027/pst.000067708109.
  57. ^ Burkhardt, Robert (1974). CAB--The Civil Aeronautics Board. Dulles Intl Airport, Virginia: The Green Hills Publishing Company. p. 107. LCCN 74082194.
  58. ^ Annual 1978, p. 155.
  59. ^ Air Carrier Financial Statistics (Report). Civil Aeronautics Board. December 1979. pp. 91–93. hdl:2027/osu.32435022510978.
  60. ^ Endres, Günter G. (1979). World Airline Fleets 1979. Hounslow (UK): Airline Publications and Sales. pp. 214–215. ISBN 0905117530.
  61. ^ Endres 1979, p. 230–231.
  62. ^ Endres 1979, p. 245.
  63. ^ Endres 1979, p. 254.
  64. ^ a b Endres 1979, p. 264.
  65. ^ Endres 1979, p. 273.
  66. ^ Endres 1979, p. 280–281.
  67. ^ Endres 1979, p. 298.
  68. ^ Endres 1979, p. 296–297.
  69. ^ Financials 1979, p. 1.
  70. ^ Financials 1979, p. 4.
  71. ^ "Mays Revocation/Munz Northern Certification". Economic Cases of the Civil Aeronautics Board. 68, Part 1. Civil Aeronautics Board: 312–343. August–October 1975. hdl:2027/osu.32437011658156.
  72. ^ a b c Annual 1978, p. 154–155.
  73. ^ a b Financials 1979, p. 1–58.
  74. ^ Air Transport Association 1979 Annual Report
  75. ^ a b c "Part III. Traffic Statistics of the Certificated Route Air Carriers". Supplement to the Handbook of Airline Statistics: Calendar Years 1977 and 1978 (Report). Civil Aeronautics Board. November 1979. pp. 12–27. hdl:2027/osu.32435025695669.
  76. ^ Endres 1979, p. 204–206.
  77. ^ Endres 1979, p. 211–213.
  78. ^ Endres 1979, p. 221–222.
  79. ^ Endres 1979, p. 224–226.
  80. ^ Endres 1979, p. 227–229.
  81. ^ Endres 1979, p. 249–250.
  82. ^ Endres 1979, p. 253–254.
  83. ^ Endres 1979, p. 256–258.
  84. ^ Endres 1979, p. 282–285.
  85. ^ Endres 1979, p. 286–291.
  86. ^ Endres 1979, p. 293–295.
  87. ^ Endres 1979, p. 201–202.
  88. ^ Endres 1979, p. 234–236.
  89. ^ Endres 1979, p. 240–241.
  90. ^ Endres 1979, p. 252.
  91. ^ Endres 1979, p. 255.
  92. ^ Endres 1979, p. 259–260.
  93. ^ Endres 1979, p. 274.
  94. ^ Endres 1979, p. 278–279.
  95. ^ Endres 1979, p. 200.
  96. ^ Endres 1979, p. 243.
  97. ^ Endres 1979, p. 249.
  98. ^ Endres 1979, p. 295–296.
  99. ^ Endres 1979, p. 203.
  100. ^ Endres 1979, p. 239.
  101. ^ Endres 1979, p. 196.
  102. ^ Endres 1979, p. 197.
  103. ^ Endres 1979, p. 208.
  104. ^ Endres 1979, p. 297.
  105. ^ Endres 1979, p. 251.
  106. ^ Endres 1979, p. 195.
  107. ^ Endres 1979, p. 234.
  108. ^ Endres 1979, p. 268.
  109. ^ "Sorbitol from France: determination of the Commission in investigation no. 731-TA-44 (final) under the Tariff Act of 1930, together with the information obtained in the investigation" (Volume 1233 of USITC publication). United States International Trade Commission, 1982. p. A-42. "Civil Aeronautics Board, 1825 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C."
  110. ^ The Code of Federal Regulations of the United States of America. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964. p. 370. "[...]office hours at the Board's Docket Section. Room 711, Universal Building, 1825 Connecticut Avenue NW., Washington, D.C."
  111. ^ a b "Briefings..." Flying Magazine. May 1959. Vol. 64, No. 5. ISSN 0015-4806. p. 98. "UNDER ONE ROOF at last, the Civil Aeronautics Board is now quartered in the Universal Building, 1825 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington"
  112. ^ National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Latin American Anthropology, Alexander Lesser. Survey of Research on Latin America by United States Scientists and Institutions. National Academies, 1946. p. 70. "Material available for the most part at the Civil Aeronautics Board, Commerce Building, Washington, D.C."
  113. ^ Civil aeronautics board (Volume 38 of Independent Offices and Department of Housing and Urban Development Appropriations for 1969: Hearings, Ninetieth Congress, Second Session, United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations. Subcommittee on Independent Offices and Dept. of Housing and Urban Development). U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968. p. 475. (See search page) "Mr. Evins. Other objects are shown on page 94. Rent is shown to increase by $28,000. You go from $194,400 to $223,200. Why do you need this increase? Mr. Murphy. We are acquiring about 2,000 more square feet of office space in the Universal Building, where we are presently housed. I think that accounts, perhaps, for the increase in our rent. Is that correct, Mr. Kiefer?"

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