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Battle of Haifa (1948)

Coordinates: 32°48′55.85″N 34°58′30.77″E / 32.8155139°N 34.9752139°E / 32.8155139; 34.9752139
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For other battles, see Battle of Haifa (disambiguation).

Battle of Haifa
Part of the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, the Nakba, and Plan Dalet

Jewish militants in Haifa
Date21–22 April 1948
Location
Haifa, Mandatory Palestine
Result

Haganah victory

  • Jewish forces take control of the city, which would go on to become a part of the State of Israel
  • ~15,000 Arab residents expelled
Belligerents

Haganah

Palestinian Arab irregulars

Arab Liberation Army
Commanders and leaders
Moshe Carmel
Mordechai Maklef[1]		 Capt. Amin Bey Izz al-Din (OC Militia)
Yunnis Naffa (Deputy)

The Battle of Haifa, also known as the Fall of Haifa, and called by the Jewish forces Operation Bi'ur Hametz (Hebrew: מבצע ביעור חמץ "Passover Cleansing"),[2][3] was a Haganah operation carried out on 21–22 April 1948 and a major event in the final stages of the civil war in Palestine, leading up to the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The objective of the operation was the capture of the Arab neighborhoods of Haifa. The operation formed part of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight, with approximately 15,000 Arab residents being displaced between April 21–22,[4] and with only 4,000 remaining in the city by mid-May from a pre-conflict population of approximately 65,000.

Background

Further information: 1947-1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

Before the war, Haifa was a mixed city with a population of 135,000, split between Jews (70,000) and Palestinian Arabs (65,000).[5] The two populations were largely separate, with the main Jewish areas of the city being Hadar HaCarmel, Bat Galim, and Neve Sha'anan, while Halisa, Wadi Salib, Wadi Nisnas, Kfur Samir, and Wadi al-Jimal were predominantly Arab.[6]

A significant port city situated on the Mediterranean coast, Haifa was a strategic location in Palestine. Having been allocated to a Jewish state under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the leadership of the Yishuv considered it of vital importance. With the capture of the port of Haifa it would be possible for the Haganah to receive supplies and armaments.

With the outbreak of the 1947-1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine, Haifa's Arab population was subject to acts of terrorism by the Irgun and Haganah,[7] and many Palestinians began to flee the city. By mid March, 25,000 to 30,000 Palestinian Arabs had already evacuated from Haifa.[8]

The implementation of Plan Dalet in Haganah's April offensive — including Operation Nachshon to open the Tel-Aviv-Jerusalem road, and Operation Yiftah to control eastern Galilee — appeared to take the Arab Higher Committee (AHC) by surprise.[9] The Palestinian Arab half of Haifa was remote from other major Palestinian Arab centres and contact had been cut off by the Jewish villages along the approach roads to Haifa. Businesses and workshops had closed with no prospect of continued employment. Unemployment was rife and the cost of food had escalated.

Preparations and hostilities in March-April 1948

On 17 March 1948 Mohammad bin Hammad Al Huneiti, commander of the town's Arab militia, was killed in an ambush of a convoy bringing 15 tons of arms and explosives. His death left his followers demoralised. According to Jon Kimche the Haganah had a highly placed informer and were able to intercept nine of eleven Palestinian Arab arms convoys into Haifa.[10][11] The Arab garrison of the Palestinian Arab areas of the city was commanded by Captain Amin Izz al-Din who had been appointed by the Arab Liberation Army's (ALA) military committee on 27 March in Damascus. Through the next month his original force of 450 was depleted by desertion until it was no longer a fighting force.[citation needed] Izz al-Din organised several operations against the Jewish community, including detonating a truck-load of explosives near the flour mills. The fighting in the city intensified with exchanges of fire and mortar attacks in the downtown and Hadar.[12]

The British had previously controlled the city and maintained a buffer between the Jewish and Arab populations. In preparation for the total evacuation of all British forces from the mandate, the British began an evacuation of troops through the port of Haifa in early April.[citation needed] A volunteer police force had been established in preparation of handing over to the United Nations Palestine Commission as the provisional Government of Palestine.[13][14][15][non-primary source needed] The original British Government intentions had been to evacuate Palestine gradually from south to north of Palestine, using Haifa as the embarkation port, to be completed by mid May.[16][non-primary source needed] On 18 April 1948, Major-General Hugh Stockwell, British Commanding Officer, Northern sector, Haifa, summoned a representative of the Jewish Agency to his headquarters. Stockwell relayed his intention to withdraw the British forces from the borders and no-man's-land zones in Haifa and that the evacuation would be completed by 20 April. The Haganah saw this change of plan as an opportunity and quickly prepared a 3-pronged attack on the Arab neighborhoods of Wadi Nisnas, Wadi Salib and Khalisa.[17]

The sudden British deployment caused the Carmeli commanders to re-work the details of the operation (previously a plan called Operation Misparayim or Operation Scissors). The revised plan was named Mivtza Bi'ur Hametz (Operation Passover Cleaning).[18]

Battle

The Haganah's force consisted of 5 companies from the Field Corps, one Palmach company, and a contingent of the Guard Corps. The Jewish forces attacked Wadi Salib and Wadi Nisnas from Hadar HaCarmel, while the bulk of the attack on Khalisa came from Neve Sha'anan. The Arab headquarters were in the center of the city, near the port and the railway depot.[17]

Commenting on the use of 'psychological warfare broadcasts' and military tactics in Haifa, Benny Morris wrote:

Throughout the Haganah made effective use of Arabic language broadcasts and loudspeaker vans. Haganah Radio announced that 'the day of judgement had arrived' and called on inhabitants to 'kick out the foreign criminals' and to 'move away from every house and street, from every neighbourhood occupied by foreign criminals'. The Haganah broadcasts called on the populace to 'evacuate the women, the children and the old immediately, and send them to a safe haven'... Jewish tactics in the battle were designed to stun and quickly overpower opposition; demoralisation was a primary aim. It was deemed just as important to the outcome as the physical destruction of the Arab units. The mortar barrages and the psychological warfare broadcasts and announcements, and the tactics employed by the infantry companies, advancing from house to house, were all geared to this goal. The orders of Carmeli's 22nd Battalion were 'to kill every [adult male] Arab encountered' and to set alight with fire-bombs 'all objectives that can be set alight. I am sending you posters in Arabic; disperse on route'.[19]

Jon Kimche also describes the "psychological blitz on Arab quarters" until "the Arab nerve broke and the flight from the town assumed panic proportions".[20]

The first attack was on the Rushmiyya Bridge area cutting the Arab areas off. Prior to the main thrust from the higher ground of the Jewish neighbourhood, Hadar HaCarmel, the Arab Muslim neighborhood of Khalisa came under mortar bombardment. The 3,500–5,000[citation needed] Arab irregulars could not mount a real defense. The following day the Arab National Committee of Haifa were prepared to ask for a truce via Stockwell. Stockwell agreed to meet with the Israelis, and returned 15 minutes later. However, the terms proposed by the Haganah – complete disarmament, surrender of weapons, and a curfew – were not accepted by the Arab leadership.[citation needed]

After the release of prisoners from Haifa lock-up, the Arab legion took over the building. By 10:15 Arab casualties had been admitted to the Amin Hospital. Hospital staff and casualties were then evacuated to the Government Hospital in the city. Towards midday the fighting slackened. The Jews had complete control of the Khamra square and Stanton Street and were firing from positions in the Suq (market) area. They had also appeared in strength in the eastern quarter of the town from Wadi Husimiyah Bridge to Tel Amal. Arab women, children and others were still being evacuated from the Suq area through the port of Haifa and other safe areas. Arabs were by this time suing for a truce and the Jews replied that they were prepared to consider it if the Arabs stopped shooting. At 17:00 general Arab resistance had ceased in the eastern area with the exception of a few isolated spots and the Jews were in possession of the Suq as far as the eastern gate. In the Wadi Nisnas area the battle was still going on. Arab casualties in this area are believed to have been considerable. At 18:00 the Arab leaders met to consider the terms laid down at a joint meeting of Arab and Jews.[21][non-primary source needed]

On April 22 a meeting was held in the town hall to discuss terms of the truce. The Haifa Arab Emergency Committee stated that "that they were not in a position to sign a truce, as they had no control over the Arab military elements in the town and that . . . they could not fulfill the terms of the truce, even if they were to sign" adding "that the Arab population wished to evacuate Haifa . . . man, woman and child."[22] By 22 April 1948, the British were only in control of the Haifa port area.[23][non-primary source needed] The rest of the city was in the hands of the Carmeli Brigade of the Haganah, commanded by Moshe Carmel.

Arab residents being expelled from the city at gunpoint by the Haganah.

Arab neighborhoods were attacked with mortars and gunfire. Rashid al-Haj Ibrahim, a Palestinian Arab municipal leader, described attacks as “provoking terror among the women and children, who were very influenced by the horrors of Dayr Yasin.” He described the flight of Haifa's Arab residents thus:[24]

Thousands of women, children and men hurried to the port district in a state of chaos and terror without precedent in the history of the Arab nation. They fled their houses to the coast, barefoot and naked, to wait for their turn to travel to Lebanon. They left their homeland, their houses, their possessions, their money, their welfare, and their trades, to surrender their dignity and their souls.

Historian Benny Morris asserts that the initial order to evacuate came from local Arab leadership, and that the Arab Higher Committee endorsed it "ex post facto". Among the evidence he cites are British and American intelligence reports, and an assessment by the British High Commissioner of Palestine. Possible reasons given by Morris include clearing the way for the Jordanian Arab Legion's impending entry into the war and avoiding the population being used as hostages.[25]

This is disputed by historian Walid Khalidi who writes that "the Zionist/Israeli claim that the exodus of Haifa’s civilian population was [...] in response to specific orders to that effect from the Palestinian leadership, is entirely without foundation." He described "the mass exodus of Haifa's Arab population" as "the spontaneous reaction to the ruthless combination of terror and psychological warfare tactics adopted by the Haganah during the attack."[26]

Approximately 15,000 Arabs fled Haifa during April 21–22.[27] The number of Arab casualties is unknown, with Jon Kimche estimating ~300 killed.[28]

Aftermath

On 23 April Moshe Carmel declared Martial Law in the town. On the same day units from the Irgun moved into parts of downtown Haifa. Two days later the Haganah forced them to withdraw in a confrontation that resulted in some Irgun casualties.[29]

After the fall of the city there was widespread looting by Zionist forces in Arab areas.[30][31] Moshe Dayan was appointed to administer abandoned Arab property in the city. He instituted a policy of collecting anything the army could use and storing it in warehouses, with the rest distributed among Jewish agricultural settlements. Golda Meir, who was consulted, agreed with this policy.[32]

After April 22, there were some 30–45,000 Arabs remaining in Haifa,[33] from the pre conflict population estimate of 65,000-70,000. By mid-May there were only ~4,000. The displacement of Palestinians from Haifa formed a significant part of the larger 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight. In July the remaining Palestinians were displaced from their homes and concentrated primarily in the Wadi Nisnas neighbourhood in a process of ghettoization.[34][35][36]

A systematic destruction of what had been Arab housing was implemented in certain areas by Haifa's Technical and Urban Development departments in cooperation with the IDF's city commander Ya'akov Lublini.[37]

Historian Saleh Abdel Jawad writes that "After the fall of Haifa, the Haganah continued to bombard civilian gatherings, especially near the port." He also relates that on 27 April, seven Palestinians accused of involvement in the Haifa Oil Refinery massacre were executed by the Haganah.[38]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ Pappe 2007, p. [page needed].
  2. ^ Morris 2004
  3. ^ Pappe 2007, p. [page needed]: "Operation ‘Cleansing the Leaven’ (bi‘ur hametz). The Hebrew term stands for total cleansing and refers to the Jewish religious practice of eliminating all traces of bread or flour from people’s homes on the eve of the Passover, since as these are forbidden during the days of the feast. Brutally appropriate, the cleansing of Haifa, in which the Palestinians were the bread and the flour, began on Passover’s eve, 21 April".
  4. ^ Morris 2003, p. 86 ("Some 15,000 Arabs evacuated Haifa during 21–22 April").
  5. ^ Morris 2003, pp. 99, 186.
  6. ^ Maoz, Eilat; Karkabi, Nadeem (February 2024). "Haifa City profile: Emergent binationalism in a settler colonial city". Cities. 145: 104686. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2023.104686. Neighborhoods remained largely separate. Palestinians resided in Wadi Nisnas, Wadi Salib, Hallisa, Kfur Samir, Wadi Jmal, and downtown, while Jewish settlers developed Hadar, Bat Galim, and Neve Sha'anan.
  7. ^ Pappe 2007, p. [page needed]: "From the morning after the UN Partition Resolution was adopted, the 75,000 Palestinians in the city were subjected to a campaign of terror jointly instigated by the Irgun and the Hagana".
  8. ^ Morris 2003, p. 107; Haj Ibrahim had checked and reported that between 35–40,000 Palestinian Arabs remained..
  9. ^ Morris 2003, p. 173.
  10. ^ Morris 1987, p. 43.
  11. ^ Kimche, Jon; Kimche, David (1960). A Clash of Destinies. The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel. Frederick A. Praeger. p. 119. LCCN 60-6996. OCLC 1348948. Spelling Mohammed el-Hamd el-Haniti.
  12. ^ Karsh, Efraim (2001). "Nakbat Haifa: Collapse and Dispersion of a Major Palestinian Community". Middle Eastern Studies. 37 (4): 41–42. doi:10.1080/714004415. JSTOR 4284196.
  13. ^ UN Resolution 181 Archived 19 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ UN Doc[permanent dead link‍]
  15. ^ UN Doc AAC21 Archived 26 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Situation Report by the Palestine Police Force
  16. ^ A/AC.21/UK/116 Archived 26 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine of 21 April 1948 Communication from the United Kingdom Delegation Concerning Directive for General Officer Commanding, Palestine
  17. ^ a b Carta Jerusalem (2003). Jehuda Wallach (ed.). Battle Sites in the Land of Israel (in Hebrew). Israel: Carta. p. 89. ISBN 965-220-494-3.
  18. ^ Morris 2003, p. 189.
  19. ^ Morris 2003, pp. 191–192.
  20. ^ Jon Kimche (1950) "Seven Fallen Pillars: The Middle East 1945–52." Secker and Warburg, London.
  21. ^ A/AC.21/UK/123 Archived 26 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine of 26 April 1948 Communication from United Kingdom Delegation Concerning Haifa Situation.
  22. ^ Morris 2003, p. 196.
  23. ^ UN Doc A/AC.21/UK/120 Archived 10 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine of 22 April 1948 UN Palestine Commission – Position in Haifa – Letter from United Kingdom
  24. ^ Eugene Rogan (2012). The Arabs: A History (3rd ed.). Penguin. p. 330. ISBN 9780718196837.
  25. ^ Morris 2003, pp. 195–200.
  26. ^ Walid Khalidi The Fall of Haifa Revisited (2008) https://www.palestine-studies.org/sites/default/files/attachments/jps-articles/haifa.pdf
  27. ^ Morris 1987, p. 86.
  28. ^ Kimche, Jon; Kimche, David (1960). A Clash of Destinies. The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel. Frederick A. Praeger. p. 116. LCCN 60-6996. OCLC 1348948.
  29. ^ Morris 1987, pp. 88–89. "one or two IZL members had been shot".
  30. ^ Morris 1987, p. 89: "the situation lent itself to excesses such as looting, intimidation and beatings. The British – and the Haganah – generally preferred, with only partial justification, to attribute all these excesses to the IZL".
  31. ^ Aderet, Ofer (3 October 2020). "Jewish Soldiers and Civilians Looted Arab Neighbors' Property en Masse in '48. The Authorities Turned a Blind Eye". Haaretz.
  32. ^ Teveth, Shabtai, (1972). Moshe Dayan. The soldier, the man, the legend. London: Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-1080-5. p. 159.
  33. ^ Morris 2003, p. [page needed].
  34. ^ Morris, Benny (1988). "Haifa's Arabs: Displacement and Concentration, July 1948". Middle East Journal. 42 (2): 241–259. JSTOR 4327736.
  35. ^ Finkelstein, Norman (1991). "Myths, Old and New". Journal of Palestine Studies. 21 (1): 66–89. doi:10.2307/2537366. JSTOR 2537366. In July, Haifa's remaining inhabitants, some 3,500, were packed into a ghetto in the downtown Wadi Nisnas neighborhood.
  36. ^ Azoulay, Ariella (January 2011). "Declaring the State of Israel: Declaring a State of War". Critical Inquiry. 37 (2): 265–285. doi:10.1086/657293. [...] the ghetto in Wadi Nisnas that had been established for them after they had been expelled from their homes.
  37. ^ Morris 2003, pp. 209–211.
  38. ^ Jawad, Saleh Abdel (2007). "Zionist Massacres: The Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem in the 1948 War". Israel and the Palestinian Refugees. Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht. Vol. 189. pp. 59–127. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68161-8_3. ISBN 978-3-540-68160-1.

Bibliography

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