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List of exoplanet extremes

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The following are lists of extremes among the known exoplanets. The properties listed here are those for which values are known reliably. It is important to note that the study of exoplanets is one of the most dynamic emerging fields of science, and these values may change wildly as new discoveries are made.

Extremes from Earth's viewpoint

[edit]
Title Planet Star Data Notes
Most distant discovered SWEEPS-11b / SWEEPS-04b SWEEPS-11 / SWEEPS-04 27,700 light-years[1] Several candidate extragalactic planets have been detected. Assuming the largest distance from the microlensing light-curve, the planet OGLE-2017-BLG-0364Lb might be more distant, at around 32 600 light-years (10 000 pc).[2]

An exoplanet around the magnetar SGR 1806-20 could be more distant, at 49000 light-years (15100 pc). It was postulated as being a possible explanation to the X-ray bursts observed in the magnetar.[3][4]

The most distant potentially habitable planet confirmed is Kepler-1606b, at 2870 light-years distant,[5] although the unconfirmed planet KOI-5889.01 is over 5000 light-years distant.

On 31 March 2022, K2-2016-BLG-0005Lb was reported to be the most distant exoplanet discovered by the Kepler telescope, at 17 000 light-years away.[6]

Least distant Proxima Centauri b, (c and d) Proxima Centauri 4.25 light-years Proxima Centauri b and (the candidate planet) d are the closest potentially rocky exoplanets,[7] b is the closest potentially habitable exoplanet known, and (the disputed planet) c is the closest mini-Neptune/Super-Earth and potentially ringed planet. As Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun (and will stay so for the next 25 000 years), this is an absolute record.
Most distant directly visible CT Chamaeleontis b CT Chamaeleontis 622 light-years[1] The disputed planet candidate CVSO 30 c may be more distant, at 1,200 light-years away.
Closest directly visible Epsilon Indi Ab Epsilon Indi 12.05 light-years COCONUTS-2b at 35.5 light-years is the next closest directly visible.[1]

Proxima Centauri c (confirmed in 2020 using archival Hubble data from 1995+) may have been directly imaged.[8]

Star with the brightest apparent magnitude with a planet Alpha Arietis b Hamal[1][a] Apparent magnitude is 2.005 Alpha Centauri A (apparent magnitude 0.01) has a directly imaged candidate planet.[9] The evidence of planets around Vega with an apparent magnitude of 0.03 is strongly suggested by circumstellar disks surrounding it.[10] As of 2021, a candidate planet around Vega has been detected.[11]

Aldebaran (apparent magnitude varies between 0.75 and 0.95) was suspected to have a candidate planet, however later studies found the existence of the planet inconclusive.[12] Pollux (apparent magnitude 1.14[13]) has a reported planet (Thestias), but the existence of this planet has been questioned.[14][15] Mirfak (α Per, apparent magnitude 1.806) was claimed to have an orbiting planet, whose existence has likewise been disputed.[16]

A 2023 study detected 10 luminous point sources around the primary star of Fomalhaut system (apparent magnitude = 1.16), of which the last source may be either an unrelated background object or a planetary-mass companion.[17]

Star with the faintest apparent magnitude with a planet MOA-bin-29Lb MOA-bin-29L Apparent magnitude is 44.61[1]
Star with the highest apparent motion (i.e, proper motion) with a planet Barnard's Star b[18] Barnard's Star 10.358
arcsec/yr[19] 		As Barnard's Star has the highest apparent motion in the sky,[19] this is currently an absolute record.
Largest angular distance separation from its host star COCONUTS-2b COCONUTS-2 594 arcseconds[20] A candidate planet or brown dwarf around BD+29 5007 might have an even larger angular separation of about 935 arcseconds.[21]
Smallest angular distance separation from its parent star SWIFT J1756.9−2508 b SWIFT J1756.9−2508 0.34 microarcseconds Derived from its separation of 0.00269 AU and its distance of ~26 000 light-years (8000 pc).[22]

Planetary characteristics

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Title Planet Star Data Notes
Most massive The most massive planet is difficult to define due to the blurry line between planets and brown dwarfs. If the borderline is defined as the deuterium fusion threshold (roughly 13 MJ at solar metallicity[23][b]), the most massive planets are those with true mass closest to that cutoff; if planets and brown dwarfs are differentiated based on formation, their mass ranges overlap.[24][25]: 62  A candidate for the most massive object that formed in a protoplanetary disk is HD 206893 b, at about 28 MJ. Both this object and its 13 MJ sibling HD 206893 c fuse deuterium.[26][27]
Least massive PSR J0337+1715 (AB) b PSR J0337+1715 0.0041±0.003 M🜨[28] The extrasolar planetesimal WD 1145+017 b is less massive, at 0.00067 ME.[20]
Largest radius DH Tauri b DH Tauri 2.7±0.8 RJ[28] Next largest is PDS 70 b with 2.09+0.23
−0.31 – 2.72+0.15
−0.17 RJ.[29]

Proplyd 133-353 is larger at up to 7.4±0.3 – 8.0±1.1 RJ.[30][c] It might be considered as a sub-brown dwarf or a rogue planet, with a photoevaporating disk.

The largest transisting planet known is XO-6b at 2.17 ± 0.2 RJ.[31]

Smallest radius Kepler-37b Kepler-37 0.296±0.037 R🜨[1] The extrasolar planetesimals SDSS J1228+1040 b[32] and WD 1145+017 b are smaller.
Most dense PSR J1719−1438 b PSR J1719−1438 ≥23 g/cm3 [33] According to the IAU working definition of exoplanets PSR J1719−1438 b, being slightly more massive than Jupiter, is a planet, despite that it might have formed as a yellow dwarf star that was stripped down to a planetary-mass carbon-rich object. For reference, it is about as dense or denser than osmium at 293 K, the densest naturally occurring non-radioactive element on Earth. The planet GP Comae Berenices b might similarly be the remaining core of a companion star, whose density is believed to be higher than 185 g/cm3 possibly resulting in a "strange quark-planet".[34]

TOI-4603b is the next densest with 14.1+1.7
−1.6 g/cm3,[35] a mass of 12.89+0.58
−0.57 MJ and a radius of 1.042+0.038
−0.035 RJ.[36]

KELT-1b is similarly dense with 22.1+5.62
−9.16 g/cm3.[37] But, with a mass of 27.23 MJ, it is likely a brown dwarf. Kepler-131c might be more dense at 77.7+55
−55 g/cm3,[38] but the value is highly uncertain.

Least dense Kepler-51c and/or possibly d Kepler-51[39] 0.034+0.069
−0.019 g/cm3 [40] 		The bulk density of Kepler-51 d has been constrained to be 0.038 ± 0.006 g/cm3.[40] Next least dense are the Hot Saturn HAT-P-67 with about 0.044 g/cm3 and the super-Neptune planet WASP-193b, with 0.059 ± 0.014 g/cm3.[41]
Largest ratio of rotation rate to breakup velocity Kappa Andromedae b Kappa Andromedae ~0.5 [42]
Hottest (irradiated hot Jupiter) KELT-9b KELT-9 4050 ± 180 K[1](3777 °C) The unconfirmed planets Kepler-70b and Kepler-70c may be hotter, both at >6800 K (assuming an albedo of 0.1 for both).[43]
Hottest (self-luminous) GQ Lupi b GQ Lupi 2650 ± 100 K[44]

(2377 °C)

GQ Lupi b may be either a massive planet or a brown dwarf.[44]
Coldest OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb OGLE-2005-BLG-390L 50 K (−223.2 °C)[45][d] The disputed planet Proxima Centauri c may be cooler, at 39 K (−234.2 °C).[46]
Highest albedo LTT 9779 b LTT 9779 0.8[47] For comparison, Earth is 0.3 and Venus is 0.76.
Lowest albedo TrES-2b GSC 03549-02811 Geometric albedo < 1%[48] Best-fit model for albedo gives 0.04% (0.0004).[43]
Youngest DH Tauri b DH Tauri 0.7+0.3
−0.2 Myr[49] 		The free-floating planet or sub-brown dwarf Proplyd 133-353 is younger, at 0.5 Myr.[30][50] However, as a free-floating planet, it does not meet the IAU's working definition of a planet.[51]

2MASS J04414489+2301513 b is listed as the youngest planet in the NASA Exoplanet Archive, at an age of 1 Myr,[1] but fails the mass ratio criterion of the IAU working definition of an exoplanet; the mass ratio with the primary is larger than the L4/L5 limit of stability ≈ 1/25[51] and 'more likely to have been produced by cloud core fragmentation' (like a star).[52]

IRAS 04125+2902 b is the youngest transiting planet at an age of 3 Myr.[53]

CI Tauri c would be the youngest radial velocity planet at an age of 2–3 Myr, if confirmed.[54]

Oldest TOI-157 b TOI-157 12.82+0.73
−1.40 Gyr[55] 		The currently accepted age of the universe is around 13.8 billion years. Could alternatively be PSR B1620-26 b with 11.2–12.7 Gyr.[56]

Orbital characteristics

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Title Planet Star Data Notes
Longest orbital period
(Longest year) 		Gliese 900 b (CW2335+0142) Gliese 900 1.27 million years[57][1][e] COCONUTS-2b previously held this record at 1,100,000 years.
Shortest orbital period
(Shortest year) 		SDSS J1730+5545 b SDSS J1730+5545 0.5866 h (35 minutes)[58] K2-137b has the shortest orbit around a main-sequence star (an M dwarf) at 4.31 hours.[59]
Largest orbital separation Gliese 900 b (CW2335+0142) Gliese 900 12 000 AU[60][1] UCAC4 328-061594 b has an even longer orbital separation (19 000 AU), although its mass (21 MJ) [1][60] is higher than the deuterium burning limit (13 MJ).

Another candidate around BD+29 5007 has an even larger orbit of about 22 100 AU. There is no consensus about its age and resulting mass, and it could be a field brown dwarf.

The companion of ASASSN-21js has an orbit of 13 000 AU, but it is unknown if it is a brown dwarf or a planet due to its unknown mass.[61]

Smallest orbital separation SDSS J1730+5545 b SDSS J1730+5545 0.00139 AU[58]
Most eccentric orbit HD 20782 b HD 20782 0.950 [1]The disproven planet candidate at VB 10 was thought to have a higher eccentricity of 0.98.[62] HD 80606 b previously held this record at 0.93226+0.00064
−0.00069.

The candidate planet SGR 1806-20 b has an even larger eccentricity at 0.994.[4]

Highest orbital inclination HD 204313 e HD 204313 176.092°+0.963°
−2.122° 		[63][64]
Lowest orbital inclination HD 331093 b HD 331093 >0.3704° [65][64] HD 43197 c has the lowest orbital inclination that is not a lower limit, of 11.42°+5.388°
−3.07°.[64]
Largest orbit around a single star COCONUTS-2b L 34-26 7506 AU Next largest are 2MASS J2126–8140 with 6900 AU and HD 106906 b[66] with ~738 AU.

UCAC4 328-061594 b has an even longer orbital separation (19,000 AU), although its mass (21 MJ)[1][60] is higher than the deuterium burning limit (13 MJ).

Smallest orbit around binary star Kepler-47b Kepler-47AB 0.2877+0.0014
−0.0011 AU[1] 		[67]
Smallest ratio of semi-major axis of a planet orbit to binary star orbit Kepler-16b Kepler-16AB 3.14 ± 0.01 [68]
Largest orbit around binary star SR 12 c SR 12 ≈1100 AU[69] SR 12 c has a mass of 0.013±0.007 M☉.[69]

ROXs 42B b is lower in mass at 9.0+6
−3 MJ, however also in projected separation of ≈150 AU.[70]

DT Virginis c, also known as Ross 458 c, at a projected separation of ≈1200 AU, with several mass estimates below the deuterium burning limit, has a latest mass determination of 27±4 MJ.[71]

Largest orbit around a single star in a multiple star system DH Tauri b DH Tauri 330 AU[72]
Largest separation between binary stars with a circumbinary planet SR 12 c SR 12 ≈26 AU[69] SR 12 c has a mass of 0.013±0.007 M☉ at a projected separation of ≈1100 AU.[69]

FW Tauri b orbits at a projected separation of 330±30 AU around a ≈11 AU separated binary.[73] It was shown to be more likely a 0.1 M☉ star surrounded by a protoplanetary disk than a planetary-mass companion.[74]

Largest orbit around three stars Gliese 900 b (CW2335+0142) Gliese 900 12 000 AU[60][1]
Closest orbit between stars with a planet orbiting one of the stars (S-type planet) DMPP-3 Ab HD 42936 1.139 AU[75][76] DMPP-3 Ab's semi-major axis is around 0.067 AU. The next closest orbit between stars with an S-type planet occurs in Nu Octantis system, of which the separation between the stellar components is 2.629 AU.[77]
Smallest semi-major axis ratio between consecutive planets Kepler-36b and Kepler-36c Kepler-36 1.11 Kepler-36b and c have semi-major axes of 0.1153 AU and 0.1283 AU, respectively; hence the planet c is 1.11 times further from star than b.
Largest semi-major axis ratio between consecutive planets HD 83443 b and HD 83443 c HD 83443 205.1 HD 83443 b and c have semi-major axes of 0.039 AU and 8.0 AU,[78] respectively; hence the planet c is 205.1 times further from star than b.

Stellar characteristics

[edit]
Title Planet Star Data Notes
Highest metallicity HD 126614 Ab HD 126614 A +0.56 dex Located in a triple star system.
Lowest metallicity K2-344b K2-344 −0.95±0.02 dex[1] BD+20°2457 may be the lowest-metallicity planet host ([Fe/H]=−1.00); however, the proposed planetary system is dynamically unstable.[79]

Planets were announced around even the extremely low-metallicity stars HIP 13044 and HIP 11952; however, these claims have since been disproven.[80]

A brown dwarf or massive planetary companion was announced around the population II star HE 1523-0901, whose metallicity is −2.65±0.22 dex.[81] While the inclination of the companion is not known, if its orbit is nearly face-on, it would be sufficiently massive to become a red dwarf instead.[82]

Highest stellar mass b Centauri b b Centauri 5 - 6 M☉ Pipirima has a higher mass of 9.1±0.3 M☉,[83] but its planet candidate Mu2 Scorpii b is most likely a brown dwarf having 14.4 ± 0.8 MJ.

The candidate planet M51-ULS-1b and the candidate planemo IGR J12580+0134 b might be the blanets, whose hosts have masses of ≫10 and 9 150 000 Solar masses, respectively.[84][85]

The stars R126 (HD 37974), R66 (HD 268835) and HH 1177 in the Large Magellanic Cloud have masses of 70, 30 and 15 solar masses and have dust discs[86] but no planets have been detected yet.

Lowest stellar mass (main sequence) KMT-2021-BLG-1554Lb KMT-2021-BLG-1554L 0.08+0.013
−0.014 M☉[64] 		The mass of this star is near the hydrogen burning limit.

KMT-2016-BLG-2142L has a lower mass of 0.073+0.117
−0.04 M☉, but the value is highly uncertain.[64]

Largest stellar radius HD 208527 b HD 208527 57.6±6.5 R☉[87] Other stars, such as HD 18438, Mirach and Delta Virginis are larger, but their substellar companions are more massive than the deuterium burning limit (13 MJ), and thus might be brown dwarfs rather than exoplanets.[1]

R Leonis (320-350 R☉)[88] has a candidate planet. R Fornacis at 585 R☉[f] also has a planet candidate.[89][90]

HD 56096 (109-137 R☉) has a candidate planet. The mass of this companion is however highly uncertain and it might be a dense clump of gas and dust instead.[91] The stars R126 and R66 in the Large Magellanic Cloud have radii of 78 R☉ and 131 R☉[92] and have dust discs but no planets have been detected yet.

Smallest stellar radius (main sequence star) TRAPPIST-1 planets TRAPPIST-1 0.1192±0.0013 R☉[93] VB 10 (0.102 R☉)[94] has a disproven planet candidate.
Highest stellar luminosity Beta Cancri b Beta Cancri 794 L☉[64] This is the most luminous star to host a planet that is not a potential brown dwarf.[64]

The star Mirfak, whose luminosity is 3780 L☉,[95] was claimed to have an orbiting planet with a minimum mass of 6.6 ± 0.2 Jupiter masses. However, the existence of the planet is doubtful.[16]

R Leonis (at 3537 L☉)[88] has a candidate planet. R Fornacis (at 5800 L☉)[89] also has a candidate planet. The bright giant BD+20°2457 (at 1479 L☉[96]) was believed to have two planetary-mass companions orbiting although the claimed system configuration is dynamically unstable.[79]

The stars R126 and R66 in the Large Magellanic Cloud have luminosities of 1400000 L☉ and 320000 L☉[92] and have dust discs but no planets have been detected yet.

Lowest stellar luminosity (main sequence star) TRAPPIST-1 planets TRAPPIST-1 0.0005495 L☉ [97][64]
Hottest star with a planet PSR B0943+10 b and c PSR B0943+10 3 100 000 K[98] Blackbody temperature of a small emitting area at the poles.[98] Suggested to actually be a low-mass quark star.
Hottest non-degenerate star with a planet NSVS 14256825 b NSVS 14256825 40 000 K (primary)[99] NN Serpentis is hotter, with a temperature of 57 000 K for the primary star,[1] but the existence of its planets is disputed.[100]
Hottest normal star with a planet[g] b Centauri b b Centauri 18 310 ± 320 K[101] V921 Scorpii b orbits a hotter star, at 30,000 K. Its host star is a 20-solar-mass B0IV-class subgiant.[102] However, at 60 Jupiter masses, it is not considered a planet under most definitions.

The candidate planet M51-ULS-1b's supergiant primary is an O5-class supergiant with an estimated surface temperature of 40,000 K.

Coolest star with a planet TRAPPIST-1 planets TRAPPIST-1 2511 K Technically Oph 162225-240515, CFBDSIR 1458+10 and WISE 1217+1626 are cooler, but are classified as brown dwarfs.

The Mira-variable R Fornacis at 2100 K[103] has a planet candidate.[90] A gas giant planet was found orbiting TVLM 513-46546,[104] which is an ultracool star (2242 K) located very close to the brown dwarf/star mass boundary.[105]

System characteristics

[edit]
Title System(s) Planet(s) Star(s) Notes
System with most planets Kepler-90 8 1 Tau Ceti currently has no confirmed planetary companion, although it has been proposed that the number of orbiting planets may be 8, 9 or even 10.[106] The four planets Tau Ceti e, f, g and h are considered as strong candidates.[107]

HD 10180 has six confirmed planets and potentially three more planets.[108]

System with most planets in habitable zone TRAPPIST-1 7 1 Four planets in this system (d, e, f and g) orbit within the habitable zone.[109]
System with most stars Kepler-64 PH1b (Kepler-64b) 4 PH1b has a circumbinary orbit.

30 Arietis Bb was believed to be either brown dwarf or a massive gas giant in a quadruple star system until later studies revealed a true mass well above 80 MJup.[110] The quintuple star system GG Tauri has several protoplanetary disks but no planets have been detected yet.[111]

Multiplanetary system with smallest mean semi-major axis (planets are nearest to their star) Kepler-42 b, c, d 1 Kepler-42 b, c and d have a semi-major axis of 0.0116, 0.006 and 0.0154 AU, respectively.

Kepler-70 b, c and d (all unconfirmed and disputed) have a semi-major axis of only 0.006, 0.0076 and ~0.0065 AU, respectively.

Multiplanetary system with largest mean semi-major axis (planets are farthest from their star) TYC 8998-760-1 b, c 1 TYC 8998-760-1 b and c have a semi-major axis of 162 and 320 AU, respectively.[1]
Multiplanetary system with smallest range of semi-major axis (smallest difference between the star's nearest planet and its farthest planet) Kepler-429 b, c, d 1 Kepler-429 b, c and d have a semi-major axis of only 0.0116, 0.006 and 0.0154 AU, respectively. The separation between closest and furthest is only 0.0094 AU.

Kepler-70 b, c and d (all unconfirmed and disputed) have a semi-major axis of only 0.006, 0.0076 and ~0.0065 AU, respectively. The separation between closest and furthest is only 0.0016 AU (239,356 km).

Multiplanetary system with largest range of semi-major axis (largest difference between the star's nearest planet and its farthest planet) TYC 8998-760-1 b, c 1 TYC 8998-760-1 b and c have a semi-major axis of 162 and 320 AU, respectively.[1] The separation between closest and furthest is 158 AU.
System with smallest total planetary mass Kepler-444 b, c, d, e, f 3 The planets in the Kepler-444 system have radii of 0.4, 0.497, 0.53, 0.546 and 0.741 Earth radii, respectively. Due to their size and proximity to Kepler-444, these must be rocky planets, with masses close to that of Mars. For comparison, Mars has a mass of 0.105 Earth masses and a radius of 0.53 Earth radii.
System with largest total planetary mass HR 8799 b, c, d, e 1 Four planets having > 5 Jupiter masses each.
Nu Ophiuchi b and c have minimum masses of 22.206 and 24.662 Jupiter masses, respectively.[1] They are likely brown dwarfs.
Multiplanetary system with smallest mean planetary mass Kepler-444 b, c, d, e, f 3 The planets in the Kepler-444 system have radii of 0.4, 0.497, 0.53, 0.546 and 0.741 Earth radii, respectively. Due to their size and proximity to Kepler-444, these must be rocky planets, with masses close to that of Mars. For comparison, Mars has a mass of 0.105 Earth masses and a radius of 0.53 Earth radii.
Multiplanetary system with largest mean planetary mass HR 8799 b, c, d, e 1 Four planets having > 5 Jupiter masses each.
Nu Ophiuchi b and c have minimum masses of 22.206 and 24.662 Jupiter masses, respectively.[1] They are likely brown dwarfs.
Exo-multiplanetary system with smallest range in planetary mass, log scale (smallest proportional difference between the most and least massive planets) Teegarden's Star b, c 1 Teegarden b and c are estimated to have masses of 1.05 and 1.11 Earth masses, respectively.
Exo-multiplanetary system with largest range in planetary mass, log scale (largest proportional difference between the most and least massive planets) Kepler-37 b, d 1 Mercury and Jupiter have a mass ratio of 5750 to 1. Kepler-37 d and b may have a mass ratio between 500 and 1000, and Gliese 676 c and d have a mass ratio of 491.

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

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  2. ^ Gui, Yuqian; Zang, Weicheng; Zhai, Ruocheng; Ryu, Yoon-Hyun; Udalski, Andrzej; Yang, Hongjing; Han, Cheongho; Mao, Shude; Authors), (Leading; Albrow, Michael D.; Chung, Sun-Ju; Gould, Andrew; Hwang, Kyu-Ha; Jung, Youn Kil; Shin, In-Gu (July 2024). "Systematic KMTNet Planetary Anomaly Search. XII. Complete Sample of 2017 Subprime Field Planets". The Astronomical Journal. 168 (2): 49. Bibcode:2024AJ....168...49G. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad4ce5. ISSN 1538-3881.
  3. ^ Corbel, S.; Eikenberry, S. S. (1 May 2004). "The connection between W31, SGR 1806–20, and LBV 1806–20: Distance, extinction, and structure". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 419 (1): 191–201. arXiv:astro-ph/0311313. Bibcode:2004A&A...419..191C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034054. ISSN 0004-6361.
  4. ^ a b Kurban, Abdusattar; Zhou, Xia; Wang, Na; Huang, Yong-Feng; Wang, Yu-Bin; Nurmamat, Nurimangul (20 March 2024), "Repeating X-ray bursts: Interaction between a neutron star and clumps partially disrupted from a planet", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 686: A87, arXiv:2403.13333, Bibcode:2024A&A...686A..87K, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347828, retrieved 14 December 2024
  5. ^ "Exoplanet-catalog-Exoplanet exploration-Kepler-1606b".
  6. ^ Specht, D.; et al. (2023). "Kepler K2Campaign 9 – II. First space-based discovery of an exoplanet using microlensing". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 520 (4): 6350–6366. arXiv:2203.16959. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad212.
  7. ^ Kipping, David M.; Cameron, Chris; Hartman, Joel D.; Davenport, James R. A.; Matthews, Jaymie M.; Sasselov, Dimitar; Rowe, Jason; Siverd, Robert J.; Chen, Jingjing; Sandford, Emily; Bakos, Gáspár Á.; Jordán, Andrés; Bayliss, Daniel; Henning, Thomas; Mancini, Luigi (1 March 2017). "No Conclusive Evidence for Transits of Proxima b in MOST Photometry". The Astronomical Journal. 153 (3): 93. arXiv:1609.08718. Bibcode:2017AJ....153...93K. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/153/3/93. ISSN 0004-6256.
  8. ^ Gratton, R.; et al. (June 2020). "Searching for the near-infrared counterpart of Proxima c using multi-epoch high-contrast SPHERE data at VLT". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 638: A120. arXiv:2004.06685. Bibcode:2020A&A...638A.120G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202037594. S2CID 215754278.
  9. ^ Wagner, K.; Boehle, A.; Pathak, P.; Kasper, M.; Arsenault, R.; Jakob, G.; et al. (10 February 2021). "Imaging low-mass planets within the habitable zone of α Centauri". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 922. arXiv:2102.05159. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12..922W. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21176-6. PMC 7876126. PMID 33568657. Kevin Wagner's (lead author of paper?) video of discovery
  10. ^ "NASA, ESA Telescopes Find Evidence for Asteroid Belt Around Vega" (Press release). Whitney Clavin, NASA. 8 January 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
  11. ^ Hurt, Spencer A.; Quinn, Samuel N.; Latham, David W.; Vanderburg, Andrew; Esquerdo, Gilbert A.; Calkins, Michael L.; Berlind, Perry; Angus, Ruth; Latham, Christian A.; Zhou, George (21 January 2021). "A Decade of Radial-velocity Monitoring of Vega and New Limits on the Presence of Planets". The Astronomical Journal. 161 (4): 157. arXiv:2101.08801. Bibcode:2021AJ....161..157H. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abdec8. S2CID 231693198.
  12. ^ Reichert, Katja (25 March 2019). "Precise radial velocities of giant stars XII. Evidence against the proposed planet Aldebaran b". Astronomy & Astrophysics. A22: 625. arXiv:1903.09157. Bibcode:2019A&A...625A..22R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834028. S2CID 85459692.
  13. ^ Ducati, J. R. (2002), "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system", CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues, 2237: 0, Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D, doi:10.26093/cds/vizier, VizieR Cat. II/237/colors.
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  1. ^ Algieba is mentioned to have a slightly higher magnitude (1.99), but it is the combined magnitude of the system and not of the planet-hosting star. The true apparent magnitude is 2.37.
  2. ^ The deuterium burning limit also depends on the metallicity and abundance of helium. Metal-rich planets, for example, need a lower mass to fuse deuterium.
  3. ^ Based on the estimated temperature and luminosity.
  4. ^ This is the calculated equilibrium temperature, assuming an albedo of 0.3
  5. ^ Assuming a circular orbit and using the Kepler's Third law
  6. ^ Determined using angular diameter and distance.
    0.008 milliarcseconds * 680 pc = diameter of 5.44 au.
  7. ^ A normal star is a star that is past its protostar period, in its main fusion period, before becoming a degenerate star, black hole, or post-stellar nebula, and is not a brown dwarf
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