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Ergine

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Ergine
Clinical data
Other namesLSA; d-Lysergic acid amide; d-Lysergamide; Ergine; LA-111
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration		Oral, intramuscular injection
ATC code
  • none
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
MetabolismHepatic
ExcretionRenal
Identifiers
  • (8β)-9,10-didehydro-6-methyl-
    ergoline-8-carboxamide
CAS Number
PubChem CID
ChemSpider
UNII
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.006.841 Edit this at Wikidata
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC16H17N3O
Molar mass267.332 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
Melting point135 °C (275 °F) Decomposes[4]
  • O=C(N)[C@@H]1C=C2C3=CC=CC4=C3C(C[C@@]2([H])N(C1)C)=CN4
  • InChI=1S/C16H17N3O/c1-19-8-10(16(17)20)5-12-11-3-2-4-13-15(11)9(7-18-13)6-14(12)19/h2-5,7,10,14,18H,6,8H2,1H3,(H2,17,20)/t10-,14-/m1/s1 checkY
  • Key:GENAHGKEFJLNJB-QMTHXVAHSA-N checkY
  (verify)

Ergine, also known as d-lysergic acid amide (LSA) and d-lysergamide, is an ergoline alkaloid that occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae and some species of fungi. The psychedelic properties in the seeds of ololiuhqui, Hawaiian baby woodrose and morning glories have been linked to ergine and/or isoergine, its epimer, as it is an alkaloid present in the seeds.[5][6][7]

Occurrence in nature

[edit]

Ergine is not a biosynthetic endpoint itself, but rather a hydrolysis product of lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide (LAH), lysergic acid hydroxymethylethylamide (ergonovine), and ergopeptines or their ergopeptam precursors.[8][9][10][11][12]

Lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide is very vulnerable to this hydrolysis,[13][14] and many analyses of ergoline-containing fungi show little to no LAH and substantial amounts of ergine.

Ergine, LAH, and ergonovine are natural ergoamides. An ergine analog, 8-hydroxyergine, has also been found in natural products in two studies.[15][16] Methylergonovine and methylmethylergonovine (methysergide) have also been found in a natural product in only one study;[17] these are documented as semisynthetic chemicals, so the findings need to be repeated for certainty. The aforementioned chemicals are the only natural ergoamides.

LAH & ergine are predominant in Claviceps paspali,[18][19][20] but are only found in trace amounts in the more well-known Claviceps purpurea[21][22] (both are ergot-spreading fungi). The major products of C. purpurea are ergopeptines, but C. paspali does not generate ergopeptines.[23] Ergonovine is the only ergoamide in C. purpurea in substantial amounts.[24]

LAH & ergine are also found in the related fungi, Periglandula, which are permanently connected with Ipomoea tricolor, Ipomoea corymbosa, Argyreia nervosa (“morning glory”, coaxihuitl, Hawaiian baby woodrose), and an estimated over 440 other Convolvulaceae[25] (ergolines have been identified in 42 of these plants and not all of them contain ergine[26]). Ipomoea tricolor contains 1/6th the amount of ergonovine of ergine.[27]

Other fungi that have been found to contain LAH and/or ergine
All of these fungi are related to Claviceps fungi.

Unidentified Acremonium species that infects sleepy grass (C. purpurea also infects sleepy grass[28]).[29]

Unidentified Acremonium species that infects drunken horse grass[30]

Acremonium coenophialum (infects Festuca arundinacea)[31]

Epichloë gansuensis var. inebriens (infects drunken horse grass)[32]

Metarhizium brunneum[33]

Metarhizium acridum[33]

Metarhizium anisopliae[33]

Metarhizium flavoviride[33]

Metarhizium robertsii[33]

Aspergillus leporis,[34]

Aspergillus homomorphus[34]

Aspergillus hancockii[34]

[Aspergillus is considered to be a more distant relative of Claviceps.]

Other fungi that possibly contain ergine (i.e. they have been found to contain ergonovine and/or ergopeptines):

Claviceps hirtella[35]

Neotyphodium lolii[36]

Unidentified Epichlöe and Neotyphodium (asexual forms of Epichlöe) species[37]

Aspergillus fumigata,[38] Aspergillus flavus[38]

Botritis fabae[38]

Curvularia lunata[38]

Geotrichum candidum[38]

Balansia cyperi,[38] Balansia claviceps,[38] Balansia epichloë[38]

Epichloë amarillans[39]

Epichloë cabralii (H)[40]

Epichloë canadensis (H)[41][42]

Epichloë coenophiala (H)[41][43][44][45]

Epichloë festucae[39]

Epichloë festucae var. lolii[46][47]

Epichloë festucae var. lolii x E. typhina (H)[41][48]

Epichloë inebriens[39]

Epichloë glyceriae[39]

Epichloë mollis[41]

Epichloë typhina[38]

Epichloë typhina ssp. poae[39][40]

Epichloë typhina ssp. clarkii[49]

Epichloë sp. AroTG-2(H)[50]

Epichloë sp. FaTG-2(H)[41][43][45][51][52]

Epichloë sp. FaTG-4(H)[41][45]

Hypomyces aurantius[38]

Sepedonium sp.[38]

Cunnigbamella blakesleana[38]

Mucor biemalis[38]

Rhizopus nigricans[38]

History

[edit]

Ololiuhqui was used by South American healers in shamanic healing ceremonies.[53] Similarly, ingestion of morning glory seeds by Mazatec tribes to "commune with their gods" was reported by Richard Schultes in 1941 and is still practiced today.[54][53]

Additional reports of the use of ergine were made by Don Thomes MacDougall. He reported that the seeds of Ipomoea violacea were used as sacraments by certain Zapotecs, sometimes in conjunction with the seeds of Rivea corymbosa, another species which has a similar chemical composition, with lysergol instead of ergometrine.[7]

Ergine was assayed for human activity by Albert Hofmann in self-trials in 1947, well before it was known to be a natural compound. Intramuscular administration of a 500 microgram dose led to a tired, dreamy state, with an inability to maintain clear thoughts. After a short period of sleep the effects were gone, and normal baseline was recovered within five hours.[6]

In 1956, the Central Intelligence Agency conducted research on the psychedelic properties of the ergine in the seeds of Rivea corymbosa, as Subproject 22 of MKULTRA.[55]

In 1959, Hofmann was the first to isolate chemically pure ergine from the seeds of Turbina corymbosa, determining that it, and other alkaloids, were acting as the main active components in the seeds.[7] Twenty years prior to its isolation, ergine was first chemically defined by English chemists S. Smith and G. M. Timmis as the cleavage product of ergot alkaloids. Additionally, Guarin and Youngkin reportedly isolated the crude alkaloid in 1964 from morning glory seeds.[56]

Ingestion

[edit]

Like other psychedelics, ergine is not considered to be addictive. Additionally, there are no known deaths directly associated with pharmacological effects of ergine consumption. All associated deaths are due to indirect causes, such as self-harm, impaired judgement, and adverse drug interactions. One known case involved a suicide that was reported in 1964 after ingestion of morning glory seeds.[57] Another instance is a death due to falling off of a building after ingestion of Hawaiian baby woodrose seeds and alcohol.[58]

Physiological effects

[edit]

While its physiological effects vary from person to person, the following symptoms have been attributed to the consumption of ergine or ergine containing seeds:[7][53][59]

One study found that 2 of 4 human subjects experienced cardiovascular dysregulation and the study had to be halted, concluding that the ingestion of seeds containing ergine was less safe then commonly believed. Importantly this may have been a product of other substances within the seeds. The same study also observed that reactions were highly differing in type and intensity between different subjects.[60] Another study in mice found that the drug had aphrodisiac properties, inducing increased sexual behavior.[61]

A study gave mice 3000 mg/kg with no lethal effects.[citation needed]

Psychedelic component

[edit]

Ergine is thought to be a serotonergic psychedelic and its psychedelic effects are thought to be due to it being a partial agonist of the 5-HT2A receptor. Though, the reason as to why this may be hallucinogenic remains elusive.

The idea that ergine is the main psychedelic component in ergine containing seeds (morning glory, Hawaiian baby woodrose) is well debated, as the effects of isolated synthetic ergine are reported to be only mildly psychedelic.[63][59] Thus, the overall psychedelic experience after consumption of such seeds has been proposed to be due to a mixture of ergoline alkaloids.

Pharmacology

[edit]

Pharmacodynamics

[edit]
Affinities of LSA and LSD for various receptors[64]
Receptor Affinity (Ki [nM])
LSA LSD
5-HT1A 10 2.5
5-HT2 28 0.87
D1 832 87
D2L 891 155
D2S 145 25
D3 437 65
D4.4 141 30
α1 912 60
α2 62 1.0
Notes: 5-HT1A and D1 are for pig receptors.[64]

Ergine interacts with serotonin, dopamine, and adrenergic receptors similarly to but with lower affinity than lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).[64][65] The psychedelic effects of ergine can be attributed to activation of serotonin 5-HT2A receptors.[66]

Chemistry

[edit]

Biosynthesis

[edit]
Biosynthesis of the ergoline scaffold
Biosynthesis of the ergoline scaffold

The biosynthetic pathway to ergine starts like most other ergoline alkaloid- with the formation of the ergoline scaffold. This synthesis starts with the prenylation of L-tryptophan in an SN1 fashion with dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) as the prenyl donor and catalyzed by prenyltransferase 4-dimethylallyltryptophan synthase (DMATS), to form 4-L-dimethylallyltryptophan (4-L-DMAT). The DMAPP is derived from mevalonic acid. A three strep mechanism is proposed to form 4-L-DMAT: the formation of an allylic carbocation, a nucleophilic attack of the indole nucleus to the cation, followed by deprotonation to restore aromaticity and to generate 4-L-DMAT.[67] 4-Dimethylallyltyptophan N-methyltransferase (EasF) catalyzes the N-methylation of 4-L-DMAT at the amino of the tryptophan backbone, using S-Adenosyl methionine (SAM) as the methyl source, to form 4-dimethylallyl-L-abrine (4-DMA-L-abrine).[67] The conversion of 4-DMA-L-abrine to chanoclavine-I is thought to occur through a decarboxylation and two oxidation steps, catalyzed by the FAD dependent oxidoreductase, EasE, and the catalase, EasC. The chanoclavine intermediate is then oxidized to chanoclavine-l-aldehyde, catalyzed by the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR), EasD.[67][68]

Formation of argoclavine
Formation of argoclavine

From here, the biosynthesis diverges and the products formed are plant and fungus-specific. The biosynthesis of ergine in Claviceps purpurea will be exemplified, in which agroclavine is produced following the formation of chanoclavine-l-aldehyde, catalyzed by EasA through a keto-enol tautomerization to facilitate rotation about the C-C bond, followed by tautomerization back to the aldehyde and condensation with the proximal secondary amine to form an iminium species, which is subsequently reduced to the tertiary amine and yielding argoclavine.[67][68] Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP450) are then thought to catalyze the formation of elymoclavine from argoclavine via a 2 electron oxidation. This is further converted to paspalic acid via a 4 electron oxidation, catalyzed by cloA, a CYP450 monooxygenase. Paspalic acid then undergoes isomerization of the C-C double bond in conjugation with the acid to form D-lysergic acid.[67] While the specifics of the formation of ergine from D-lysergic acid are not known, it is proposed to occur through a nonribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS) with two enzymes primarily involve: D-lysergyl peptide synthase (LPS) 1 and 2.[67][68]

[edit]

The legality of consuming, cultivating, and possessing ergine varies depending on the country.

There are no laws against possession of ergine-containing seeds in the United States. However, possession of the pure compound without a prescription or a DEA license would be prosecuted, as ergine, under the name "lysergic acid amide", is listed under Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act.[69] Similarly, ergine is considered a Class A substance in the United Kingdom, categorized as a precursor to LSD.

In most Australian states, the consumption of ergine containing materials is prohibited under state legislation.

In Canada, ergine is not illegal to possess as it is not listed under Canada's Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, though it is likely illegal to sell for human consumption.[70]

In New Zealand, ergine is a controlled drug, however the plants and seeds of the morning glory species are legal to possess, cultivate, buy, and distribute.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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    Table 4.1 Unambiguously ergoline-positive Ipomoea species (pages 225-227)
    Table 4.4 Unambiguously ergoline-positive Argyreia species (p. 236)
    Table 4.5 Unambiguously ergoline-positive Stictocardia and Turbina species (p. 238)
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    See table 3
    Values for “LSH”, “Lyzergol/isobars”, penniclavine, and chanoclavine can be obtained by dividing the concentration values of ergine or ergometrine by their relative abundance values and multiplying that number by the relative abundance value of the specified chemical.
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Further reading

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