Jump to content

Emotional self-regulation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Emotional regulation)

Part of a series on
Emotions
Emotions

The self-regulation of emotion or emotion regulation is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed.[1] It can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions.[2] The self-regulation of emotion belongs to the broader set of emotion regulation processes, which includes both the regulation of one's own feelings and the regulation of other people's feelings.[3][4][5]

Emotion regulation is a complex process that involves initiating, inhibiting, or modulating one's state or behavior in a given situation — for example, the subjective experience (feelings), cognitive responses (thoughts), emotion-related physiological responses (for example heart rate or hormonal activity), and emotion-related behavior (bodily actions or expressions). Functionally, emotion regulation can also refer to processes such as the tendency to focus one's attention to a task and the ability to suppress inappropriate behavior under instruction. Emotion regulation is a highly significant function in human life.[6]

Every day, people are continually exposed to a wide variety of potentially arousing stimuli. Inappropriate, extreme or unchecked emotional reactions to such stimuli could impede functional fit within society; therefore, people must engage in some form of emotion regulation almost all of the time.[7] Generally speaking, emotion dysregulation has been defined as difficulties in controlling the influence of emotional arousal on the organization and quality of thoughts, actions, and interactions.[8] Individuals who are emotionally dysregulated exhibit patterns of responding in which there is a mismatch between their goals, responses, and/or modes of expression, and the demands of the social environment.[9] For example, there is a significant association between emotion dysregulation and symptoms of depression, anxiety, eating pathology, and substance abuse.[10][11] Higher levels of emotion regulation are likely to be related to both high levels of social competence and the expression of socially appropriate emotions.[12][13]

Theory

[edit]

Process model

[edit]

The process model of emotion regulation is based upon the modal model of emotion. The modal model of emotion suggests that the emotion generation process occurs in a particular sequence over time. This sequence occurs as follows:

  1. Situation: the sequence begins with a situation (real or imagined) that is emotionally relevant.
  2. Attention: attention is directed towards the emotional situation.
  3. Appraisal: the emotional situation is evaluated and interpreted.
  4. Response: an emotional response is generated, giving rise to loosely coordinated changes in experiential, behavioral, and physiological response systems.

Because an emotional response (4.) can cause changes to a situation (1.), this model involves a feedback loop from (4.) Response to (1.) Situation. This feedback loop suggests that the emotion generation process can occur recursively, is ongoing, and dynamic.[14]

The process model contends that each of these four points in the emotion generation process can be subjected to regulation. From this conceptualization, the process model posits five different families of emotion regulation that correspond to the regulation of a particular point in the emotion generation process. They occur in the following order:[15]

  1. Situation selection
  2. Situation modification
  3. Attentional deployment
  4. Cognitive change
  5. Response modulation

The process model also divides these emotion regulation strategies into two categories: antecedent-focused and response-focused. Antecedent-focused strategies (i.e., situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, and cognitive change) occur before an emotional response is fully generated. Response-focused strategies (i.e., response modulation) occur after an emotional response is fully generated.[16]

Strategies

[edit]

Situation selection

[edit]

Situation selection is an emotional regulation strategy that involves choosing to avoid or approach a future emotional situation.[17] If a person selects to avoid or disengage from an emotionally relevant situation, they are decreasing the likelihood of experiencing an emotion. Alternatively, if a person selects to approach or engage with an emotionally relevant situation, they are increasing the likelihood of experiencing an emotion.[15]

Typical examples of situation selection may be seen interpersonally, such as when a parent removes his or her child from an emotionally unpleasant situation.[18] Use of situation selection may also be seen in psychopathology. For example, avoidance of social situations to regulate emotions is particularly pronounced for those with social anxiety disorder[19] and avoidant personality disorder.[20]

Effective situation selection is not always an easy task. For instance, humans display difficulties predicting their emotional responses to future events. Therefore, they may have trouble making accurate and appropriate decisions about which emotionally relevant situations to approach or to avoid.[21]

Situation modification

[edit]

Situation modification involves efforts to modify a situation so as to change its emotional impact.[15] Situation modification refers specifically to altering one's external, physical environment. Altering one's "internal" environment to regulate emotion is called cognitive change.[14] Younger and older adults seem to also regulate their emotions through situation modification in differing ways that reflects what type of material they consume ranging from negative, neutral, and positive. Livingstone and Isaacowitz conducted research where they observed younger and older adults as they viewed different types of material and had the choice to skip what material they saw, and it came out that older adults are better able to regulate the negative material, focusing mainly on the positive, than the younger adults who still consumed positive material, but not as much modification. This showing that as we age, we gain a better understanding of situation modification and being able to emotionally self-regulate.[22]

Examples of situation modification may include injecting humor into a speech to elicit laughter[23] or extending the physical distance between oneself and another person.[24]

Attentional deployment

[edit]

Attentional deployment involves directing one's attention towards or away from an emotional situation.[15]

Distraction

[edit]

Distraction, an example of attentional deployment, is an early selection strategy, which involves diverting one's attention away from an emotional stimulus and towards other content.[25] Distraction has been shown to reduce the intensity of painful[26] and emotional experiences,[27] to decrease facial responding and neural activation in the amygdala associated with emotion,[27][28] as well as to alleviate emotional distress.[29] As opposed to reappraisal, individuals show a relative preference to engage in distraction when facing stimuli of high negative emotional intensity. This is because distraction easily filters out high-intensity emotional content, which would otherwise be relatively difficult to appraise and process.[30]

Rumination

[edit]

Rumination, an example of attentional deployment,[20] is defined as the passive and repetitive focusing of one's attention on one's symptoms of distress and the causes and consequences of these symptoms. Rumination is generally considered a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy, as it tends to exacerbate emotional distress. It has also been implicated in a host of disorders including major depression.[31]

Worry

[edit]

Worry, an example of attentional deployment,[20] involves directing attention to thoughts and images concerned with potentially negative events in the future.[32] By focusing on these events, worrying serves to aid in the down-regulation of intense negative emotion and physiological activity.[20] While worry may sometimes involve problem solving, incessant worry is generally considered maladaptive, being a common feature of anxiety disorders, particularly generalized anxiety disorder.[33]

Thought suppression

[edit]
Main article: Thought suppression

Thought suppression, an example of attentional deployment, involves efforts to redirect one's attention from specific thoughts and mental images to other content so as to modify one's emotional state.[20] Although thought suppression may provide temporary relief from undesirable thoughts, it may ironically end up spurring the production of even more unwanted thoughts.[34] This strategy is generally considered maladaptive, being most associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder.[20]

Cognitive change

[edit]

Cognitive change involves changing how one appraises a situation so as to alter its emotional meaning.[15]

Reappraisal

[edit]

Reappraisal, an example of cognitive change, is a late selection strategy, which involves a change of the meaning of an event that alters its emotional impact.[15][35] It encompasses different substrategies, such as positive reappraisal (creating and focusing on a positive aspect of the stimulus),[36] decentering (reinterpreting an event by broadening one's perspective to see "the bigger picture"),[37] or fictional reappraisal (adopting or emphasizing the belief that event is not real, that it is for instance "just a movie" or "just my imagination").[38] Reappraisal has been shown to effectively reduce physiological,[39] subjective,[16] and neural[40] emotional responding. As opposed to distraction, individuals show a relative preference to engage in reappraisal when facing stimuli of low negative emotional intensity because these stimuli are relatively easy to appraise and process.[30]

Reappraisal is generally considered to be an adaptive emotion regulation strategy. Compared to suppression (including both thought suppression and expressive suppression), which is positively correlated with many psychological disorders,[10] reappraisal can be associated with better interpersonal outcomes, and can be positively related to well-being.[41] However, some researchers argue that context is important when evaluating the adaptiveness of a strategy, suggesting that in some contexts reappraisal may be maladaptive.[42] Furthermore, some research has shown reappraisal does not influence or affect physiological responses to recurrent stress.[43]

Distancing

[edit]

Distancing, an example of cognitive change, involves taking on an independent, third-person perspective when evaluating an emotional event.[44] Distancing has been shown to be an adaptive form of self-reflection, facilitating the emotional processing of negatively valenced stimuli,[45] reducing emotional and cardiovascular reactivity to negative stimuli, and increasing problem-solving behavior.[46]

Humour

[edit]

Humour, an example of cognitive change, has been shown to be an effective emotion regulation strategy. Specifically, positive, good-natured humour has been shown to effectively up-regulate positive emotion and down-regulate negative emotion. On the other hand, negative, mean-spirited humour is less effective in this regard.[47]

Response modulation

[edit]

Response modulation involves attempts to directly influence experiential, behavioral, and physiological response systems.[15]

Expressive suppression

[edit]
Main article: Expressive suppression

Expressive suppression, an example of response modulation, involves inhibiting emotional expressions. It has been shown to effectively reduce facial expressivity, subjective feelings of positive emotion, heart rate, and sympathetic activation. However, the research findings are mixed regarding whether this strategy is effective for down-regulating negative emotion.[48] Research has also shown that expressive suppression may have negative social consequences, correlating with reduced personal connections and greater difficulties forming relationships.[49]

Expressive suppression is generally considered to be a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy. Compared to reappraisal, it is positively correlated with many psychological disorders,[10] associated with worse interpersonal outcomes, is negatively related to well-being,[41] and requires the mobilization of a relatively substantial amount of cognitive resources.[50] However, some researchers argue that context is important when evaluating the adaptiveness of a strategy, suggesting that in some contexts suppression may be adaptive.[42]

Drug use

[edit]

Drug use, an example of response modulation, can be used to alter emotion-associated physiological responses. For example, alcohol can produce sedative and anxiolytic effects[51] and beta blockers can affect sympathetic activation.[14]

Exercise

[edit]

Exercise, an example of response modulation, can be used to down-regulate the physiological and experiential effects of negative emotions.[14] Regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce emotional distress and improve emotional control.[52] Exercise has been proven to increase emotional health and regulation through hormonal regulation. [53]

Sleep

[edit]

Sleep plays a role in emotion regulation, although stress and worry can also interfere with sleep. Studies have shown that sleep, specifically REM sleep, down-regulates reactivity of the amygdala, a brain structure known to be involved in the processing of emotions, in response to previous emotional experiences.[54] On the flip side, sleep deprivation is associated with greater emotional reactivity or overreaction to negative and stressful stimuli. This is a result of both increased amygdala activity and a disconnect between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, which regulates the amygdala through inhibition, together resulting in an overactive emotional brain.[54] Due to the subsequent lack of emotional control, sleep deprivation may be associated with depression, impulsivity, and mood swings. Additionally, there is some evidence that sleep deprivation may reduce emotional reactivity to positive stimuli and events and impair emotion recognition in others.[55]

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)

[edit]
Main article: Borderline personality disorder

In its extreme form, problems with response modulation is correlated with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD).[56] BPD is characterized by an enduring instability in regulating emotions, relationships with others, your self-image, and your behavior.[57] This can lead to self-sabotage, risk-taking, impulsivity, and aggression.[58] Research has indicated that the heightened emotional response can be due to an exaggerated amygdala response and an impaired anterior cingulate cortex, which is responsible for modulating emotions.[59] This can lead to an intense emotional response.[60]

In psychotherapy

[edit]

Emotion regulation strategies are taught, and emotion regulation problems are treated, in a variety of counseling and psychotherapy approaches, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), emotion-focused therapy (EFT), and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT).[61][62]

For example, a relevant mnemonic formulated in DBT is "ABC PLEASE":[63]

  • Accumulate positive experiences.
  • Build mastery by being active in activities that make one feel competent and effective to combat helplessness.
  • Cope ahead, preparing an action plan, researching, and rehearsing (with a skilled helper if necessary).
  • Physical illness treatment and prevention through checkups.
  • Low vulnerability to diseases, managed with health care professionals.
  • Eating healthy.
  • Avoiding (non-prescribed) mood-altering drugs.
  • Sleep healthy.
  • Exercise regularly.

Developmental process

[edit]
See also: Developmental psychology and Social emotional development

Infancy

[edit]

Intrinsic emotion regulation efforts during infancy are believed to be guided primarily by innate physiological response systems.[64] These systems usually manifest as an approach towards and an avoidance of pleasant or unpleasant stimuli. At three months, infants can engage in self-soothing behaviors like sucking and can reflexively respond to and signal feelings of distress.[65] For instance, infants have been observed attempting to suppress anger or sadness by knitting their brow or compressing their lips.[66]

Between three and six months, basic motor functioning and attentional mechanisms begin to play a role in emotion regulation, allowing infants to more effectively approach or avoid emotionally relevant situations.[67] Infants may also engage in self-distraction and help-seeking behaviors for regulatory purposes.[68] At one year, infants are able to navigate their surroundings more actively and respond to emotional stimuli with greater flexibility due to improved motor skills.[69] They also begin to appreciate their caregivers' abilities to provide them regulatory support.[70] For instance, infants generally have difficulties regulating fear.[71] As a result, they often find ways to express fear in ways that attract the comfort and attention of caregivers.[72]

Extrinsic emotion regulation efforts by caregivers, including situation selection, modification, and distraction, are particularly important for infants.[73] The emotion regulation strategies employed by caregivers to attenuate distress or to up-regulate positive affect in infants can impact the infants' emotional and behavioral development, teaching them particular strategies and methods of regulation.[74] The type of attachment style between caregiver and infant can therefore play a meaningful role in the regulatory strategies infants may learn to use.[75]

Recent evidence supports the idea that maternal singing has a positive effect on affect regulation in infants.[76] Singing play-songs can have a visible affect-regulatory consequence of prolonged positive affect and even alleviation of distress. In addition to proven facilitation of social bonding, when combined with movement and/or rhythmic touch, maternal singing for affect regulation has possible applications for infants in the NICU and for adult caregivers with serious personality or adjustment difficulties.[77]

Toddler-hood

[edit]

By the end of the first year, toddlers begin to adopt new strategies to decrease negative arousal. These strategies can include rocking themselves, chewing on objects, or moving away from things that upset them.[78] At two years, toddlers become more capable of actively employing emotion regulation strategies.[65] They can apply certain emotion regulation tactics to influence various emotional states.[73] Additionally, maturation of brain functioning and language and motor skills permits toddlers to manage their emotional responses and levels of arousal more effectively.[79]

Extrinsic emotion regulation remains important to emotional development in toddlerhood. Toddlers can learn ways from their caregivers to control their emotions and behaviors.[78] For example, caregivers help teach self-regulation methods by distracting children from unpleasant events (like a vaccination shot) or helping them understand frightening events.[2]

Childhood

[edit]

Emotion regulation knowledge becomes more substantial during childhood. For example, children aged six to ten begin to understand display rules. They come to appreciate the contexts in which certain emotional expressions are socially most appropriate and therefore ought to be regulated. For example, children may understand that upon receiving a gift they should display a smile, irrespective of their actual feelings about the gift.[80] During childhood, there is also a trend towards the use of more cognitive emotion regulation strategies, taking the place of more basic distraction, approach, and avoidance tactics.[81]

Regarding the development of emotion dysregulation in children, one robust finding suggests that children who are frequently exposed to negative emotion at home will be more likely to display, and have difficulties regulating, high levels of negative emotion.[82][83][84][85]

Adolescence

[edit]

Adolescents show a marked increase in their capacities to regulate their emotions, and emotion regulation decision making becomes more complex, depending on multiple factors. In particular, the significance of interpersonal outcomes increases for adolescents. When regulating their emotions, adolescents are therefore likely to take into account their social context.[9] For instance, adolescents show a tendency to display more emotion if they expect a sympathetic response from their peers.[86]

Additionally, spontaneous use of cognitive emotion regulation strategies increases during adolescence, which is evidenced both by self-report data[87] and neural markers.[88]

Adulthood

[edit]

Social losses increase and health tends to decrease as people age. As people get older their motivation to seek emotional meaning in life through social ties tends to increase.[89] Autonomic responsiveness decreases with age, and emotion regulation skill tends to increase.[90]

Emotional regulation in adulthood can also be examined in terms of positive and negative affectivity.[91] Positive and negative affectivity refers to the types of emotions felt by an individual as well as the way those emotions are expressed.[91] With adulthood comes an increased ability to maintain both high positive affectivity and low negative affectivity “more rapidly than adolescents.”[92] This response to life's challenges seems to become “automatized” as people progress throughout adulthood.[92] Thus, as individuals age, their capability of self-regulating emotions and responding to their emotions in healthy ways improves.[92]

Additionally, emotional regulation may vary between young adults and older adults. Younger adults have been found to be more successful than older adults in practicing “cognitive reappraisal” to decrease negative internal emotions.[93] On the other hand, older adults have been found to be more successful in the following emotional regulation areas:[93]

  • Predicting the level of “emotional arousal” in possible situations
  • Having a higher focus on positive information rather than negative
  • Maintaining healthy levels of “hedonic well-being” (subjective well-being based on increased pleasure and decreased pain)

Overview of perspectives

[edit]

Neuropsychological perspective

[edit]

Affective

[edit]

As people age, their affect – the way they react to emotions – changes, either positively or negatively. Studies show that positive affect increases as a person grows from adolescence to their mid 70s. Negative affect, on the other hand, decreases until the mid 70s.[94] Studies also show that emotions differ in adulthood, particularly affect (positive or negative).[95] Although some studies found that individuals experience less affect as they grow older, other studies have concluded that adults in their middle age experience more positive affect and less negative affect than younger adults. Positive affect was also higher for men than women while the negative affect was higher for women than it was for men and also for single people.[96]

A reason that older people – middle adulthood – might have less negative affect is because they have overcome, "the trials and vicissitudes of youth, they may increasingly experience a more pleasant balance of affect, at least up until their mid-70s". Positive affect might rise during middle age but towards the later years of life – the 70s – it begins to decline while negative affect also does the same. This might be due to failing health, reaching the end of their lives and the death of friends and relatives.[97]

In addition to baseline levels of positive and negative affect, studies have found individual differences in the time-course of emotional responses to stimuli. The temporal dynamics of emotion regulation, also known as affective chronometry, include two key variables in the emotional response process: rise time to peak emotional response, and recovery time to baseline levels of emotion.[98] Studies of affective chronometry typically separate positive and negative affect into distinct categories, as previous research has shown (despite some correlation) the ability of humans to experience changes in these categories independently of one another.[99] Affective chronometry research has been conducted on clinical populations with anxiety, mood, and personality disorders, but is also utilized as a measurement to test the effectiveness of different therapeutic techniques (including mindfulness training) on emotional dysregulation.[100]

Neurological

[edit]

The development of functional magnetic resonance imaging has allowed for the study of emotion regulation on a biological level. Specifically, research over the last decade strongly suggests that there is a neural basis.[101] Sufficient evidence has correlated emotion regulation to particular patterns of prefrontal activation. These regions include the orbital prefrontal cortex, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Two additional brain structures that have been found to contribute are the amygdala and the anterior cingulate cortex.[102][103] Each of these structures are involved in various facets of emotion regulation and irregularities in one or more regions and/or interconnections among them are affiliated with failures of emotion regulation. An implication to these findings is that individual differences in prefrontal activation predict the ability to perform various tasks in aspects of emotion regulation.[104]

Sociological

[edit]

People intuitively mimic facial expressions; it is a fundamental part of healthy functioning. Similarities across cultures in regards to nonverbal communication has prompted the debate that it is in fact a universal language.[105] It can be argued that emotion regulation plays a key role in the ability to generate the correct responses in social situations. Humans have control over facial expressions both consciously and unconsciously: an intrinsic emotion program is generated as the result of a transaction with the world, which immediately results in an emotional response and usually a facial reaction.[106] It is a well documented phenomenon that emotions have an effect on facial expression, but recent research has provided evidence that the opposite may also be true.[107]

This notion would give rise to the belief that a person may not only control his emotion but in fact influence them as well. Emotion regulation focuses on providing the appropriate emotion in the appropriate circumstances. Some theories allude to the thought that each emotion serves a specific purpose in coordinating organismic needs with environmental demands (Cole, 1994). This skill, although apparent throughout all nationalities,[105] has been shown to vary in successful application at different age groups. In experiments done comparing younger and older adults to the same unpleasant stimuli, older adults were able to regulate their emotional reactions in a way that seemed to avoid negative confrontation.[108] These findings support the theory that with time people develop a better ability to regulate their emotions. This ability found in adults seems to better allow individuals to react in what would be considered a more appropriate manner in some social situations, permitting them to avoid adverse situations that could be seen as detrimental.

Expressive regulation (in solitary conditions)

[edit]

In solitary conditions, emotion regulation can include a minimization-miniaturization effect, in which common outward expressive patterns are replaced with toned down versions of expression.[109] Unlike other situations, in which physical expression (and its regulation) serve a social purpose (i.e. conforming to display rules or revealing emotion to outsiders), solitary conditions require no reason for emotions to be outwardly expressed (although intense levels of emotion can bring out noticeable expression anyway). The idea behind this is that as people get older, they learn that the purpose of outward expression (to appeal to other people), is not necessary in situations in which there is no one to appeal to.[110] As a result, the level of emotional expression can be lower in these solitary situations.

Stress

[edit]

The way an individual reacts to stress can directly overlap with their ability to regulate emotion.[111] Although the two concepts differ in a multitude of ways, "both coping [with stress] and emotion regulation involve affect modulation and appraisal processes" that are necessary for healthy relationships and self-identity.[112]

According to Yu. V. Shcherbatykh, emotional stress in situations like school examinations can be reduced by engaging in self-regulating activities prior to the task being performed. To study the influence of self-regulation on mental and physiological processes under exam stress, Shcherbatykh conducted a test with an experimental group of 28 students (of both sexes) and a control group of 102 students (also of both sexes).[113]

In the moments before the examination, situational stress levels were raised in both groups from what they were in quiet states. In the experimental group, participants engaged in three self-regulating techniques (concentration on respiration, general body relaxation, and the creation of a mental image of successfully passing the examination). During the examination, the anxiety levels of the experimental group were lower than that of the control group. Also, the percent of unsatisfactory marks in the experimental group was 1.7 times less than in the control group. From this data, Shcherbatykh concluded that the application of self-regulating actions before examinations helps to significantly reduce levels of emotional strain, which can help lead to better performance results.[113]

Emotion regulation has also been associated with physiological responses to stress during laboratory stress paradigms.[114]

Decision making

[edit]

Identification of our emotional self-regulating process can facilitate in the decision-making process.[115] Current literature on emotion regulation identifies that humans characteristically make efforts in controlling emotion experiences.[116] There is then a possibility that our present state emotions can be altered by emotion regulation strategies resulting in the possibility that different regulation strategies could have different decision implications.

Digital emotion regulation

[edit]

Following widespread adoption in the 21st century of digital devices and services for use in everyday life, evidence is mounting that people are increasingly using these tools to manage and regulate moods and emotions.[117] A wide range of digital resources are used for emotion regulation including smartphones,[118] social media,[119] streaming services,[120] online shopping,[121] and videogames.[122] Such spontaneous forms of digital emotion regulation can be distinguished from the use of digital interventions such as smartphone apps that have been explicitly designed to support emotional regulation or teach emotion regulation skills in clinical and non-clinical populations.[123] Digital implementation of emotion regulation strategies can occur at all stages of the process model and in all strategy families, including interpersonal emotion regulation.[124]

Effects of low self-regulation

[edit]

With a failure in emotion regulation, there is a rise in psychosocial and emotional dysfunctions[125] caused by traumatic experiences due to an inability to regulate emotions.[126] These traumatic experiences typically happen in grade school and are sometimes associated with bullying. Children who can't properly self-regulate express their volatile emotions in a variety of ways, including screaming if they don't have their way, lashing out with their fists, throwing objects (such as chairs), or bullying other children. Such behaviors often elicit negative reactions from the social environment, which, in turn, can exacerbate or maintain the original regulation problems over time, a process termed cumulative continuity. These children are more likely to have conflict-based relationships with their teachers and other children. This can lead to more severe problems such as an impaired ability to adjust to school and predicts school dropout many years later. Children who fail to properly self-regulate grow as teenagers with more emerging problems.[127] Their peers begin to notice this "immaturity", and these children are often excluded from social groups and teased and harassed by their peers. This "immaturity" certainly causes some teenagers to become social outcasts in their respective social groups, causing them to lash out in angry and potentially violent ways. Being teased or being an outcast in childhood is especially damaging because it could lead to psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety (in which dysregulated emotions play a central role), which, in turn, could lead to more peer victimization.[128] This is why it is recommended to foster emotional self-regulation in children as early as possible.

Occupational therapy in schools

[edit]

Occupational therapists (OTs) are integrated educators in most public and private schools across the United States. They are trained in mental health and activity analysis to assess the needs of their clients. OTs and students work together to create meaningful and healthy habits for stress management, social skills, emotional labeling, coping strategies, awareness, problem-solving, self-monitoring, judgment, emotional control, and others in the school and home environment.[129][130] OTs can complete formal assessments for emotional regulation and treat in a client-centered manner for each student.[130] In addition, they can create individualized home programs for carryover with their families. For example, OTs can work with students to engage in the occupational therapist-developed curriculum The Zones of Regulation,[131] which utilizes evidence-based knowledge, formal assessment, and in-classroom treatment to improve self-regulation of emotional behaviors and create long-lasting changes in habits.

Early childhood access to education on emotional regulation mitigates risk factors for increased anxiety, depression, and negative behaviors. It allows the student to create healthy habits for school and home environments.[130] Children should be able to learn to regulate their feelings for full participation in activities, including social skills, play, sports, and school.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Cole, Pamela M.; Michel, Margaret K.; Teti, Laureen O'Donnell (1994). "The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: A Clinical Perspective". Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 59 (2/3): 73–100. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01278.x. JSTOR 1166139. PMID 7984169.
  2. ^ a b Thompson, Ross A. (1994). "Emotion Regulation: A Theme in Search of Definition". Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 59 (2–3): 25–52. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.x. PMID 7984164.
  3. ^ Niven, K.; Totterdell, P.; Holman, D. (2009). "A classification of controlled interpersonal affect regulation strategies". Emotion. 9 (4): 498–509. doi:10.1037/a0015962. PMID 19653772. S2CID 565189.
  4. ^ Burman, J. T.; Green, C. D.; Shanker, S. (2015). "On the Meanings of Self-Regulation: Digital Humanities in Service of Conceptual Clarity" (PDF). Child Development. 86 (5): 1507–1521. doi:10.1111/cdev.12395. PMID 26234744. S2CID 31507777.
  5. ^ Leventhal, Howard; Leventhal, Elaine A.; Contrada, Richard J. (1998). "Self-regulation, health, and behavior: A perceptual-cognitive approach". Psychology & Health. 13 (4): 717–733. doi:10.1080/08870449808407425.
  6. ^ Cicchetti, Dante; Ganiban, Jody; Barnett, Douglas (1991), Garber, Judy; Dodge, Kenneth A. (eds.), "Contributions from the study of high-risk populations to understanding the development of emotion regulation", The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation, Cambridge Studies in Social and Emotional Development, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–48, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511663963.003, ISBN 978-0-521-36406-5, retrieved 21 November 2024
  7. ^ Koole, Sander L. (2009). "The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review" (PDF). Cognition & Emotion. 23 (1): 4–41. doi:10.1080/02699930802619031. S2CID 145107160.
  8. ^ "What Is Emotional Dysregulation?". WebMD. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
  9. ^ a b Zeman, J.; Cassano, M.; Perry-Parrish, C.; Stegall, S. (2006). "Emotion regulation in children and adolescents". Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. 27 (2): 155–168. doi:10.1097/00004703-200604000-00014. PMID 16682883. S2CID 8662305.
  10. ^ a b c Aldao, Amelia; Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan; Schweizer, Susanne (2010). "Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review". Clinical Psychology Review. 30 (2): 217–237. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004. PMID 20015584. S2CID 14248740.
  11. ^ Aldao, A.; Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2010). "Specificity of cognitive emotion regulation strategies: a transdiagnostic examination". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 48 (10): 974–983. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.06.002. PMID 20591413.
  12. ^ Fabes, R. A.; Eisenberg, N.; Jones, S.; Smith, M.; Guthrie, I.; Poulin, R.; Shepard, S.; Friedman, J. (1999). "Regulation, emotionality, and pre-schoolers' socially competent peer interactions". Child Development. 70 (2): 432–442. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00031. PMID 10218264.
  13. ^ Pulkkinen, L. (1982). Self-control and continuity from childhood to late adolescence. In P. B. Bakes & O. Brim Jr. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 63-105). New York: Academic Press.
  14. ^ a b c d Gross, J. J. & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 3-24). New York: Guilford Press.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g Gross, J. J. (1998). "The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review". Review of General Psychology. 2 (3): 271–299. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.7042. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271. S2CID 6236938.
  16. ^ a b Gross, J. J. (1998). "Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74 (1): 224–237. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.688.783. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224. PMID 9457784. S2CID 3031566.
  17. ^ Thuillard, Simon; Dan-Glauser, Elise S. (March 2021). "Efficiency of Illusory Choice Used as a Variant of Situation Selection for Regulating Emotions: Reduction of Positive Experience But Preservation of Physiological Downregulation". Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. 46 (1): 115–132. doi:10.1007/s10484-020-09484-x. ISSN 1090-0586. PMC 7878267. PMID 32770450.
  18. ^ Fox, N. A.; Calkins, S. D. (2003). "The development of self-control of emotion: Intrinsic and extrinsic influences". Motivation and Emotion. 27 (1): 7–26. doi:10.1023/A:1023622324898. S2CID 6467799.
  19. ^ Wells, A.; Papageorgiou, C. (1998). "Social phobia: Effects of external attention on anxiety, negative beliefs, and perspective taking". Behavior Therapy. 29 (3): 357–370. doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(98)80037-3.
  20. ^ a b c d e f Campbell-Sills, L. & Barlow, D. H. (2007). Incorporating emotion regulation into conceptualizations and treatments of anxiety and mood disorders. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 542–559). New York: Guilford Press.
  21. ^ Loewenstein, G. (2007). Affect regulation and affective forecasting. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp.180-203). New York: Guilford Press.
  22. ^ Livingstone, K. M., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2015). Situation selection and modification for emotion regulation in younger and older adults. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(8), 904–910. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615593148
  23. ^ Hofmann, S. G.; Gerlach, A. L.; Wender, A.; Roth, W T. (1997). "Speech disturbances and gaze behavior during public speaking in subtypes of social phobia". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 11 (6): 573–585. doi:10.1016/s0887-6185(97)00040-6. PMID 9455720.
  24. ^ Edelmann, R. J.; Iwawaki, S. (1987). "Self-reported expression and consequences of embarrassment in the United Kingdom and Japan". Psychologia. 30 (4): 205–216.
  25. ^ Sheppes, G.; Gross, J. J. (2011). "Is timing everything? Temporal considerations in emotion regulation". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 15 (4): 319–331. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.688.4292. doi:10.1177/1088868310395778. PMID 21233326. S2CID 637723.
  26. ^ Seminowicz, D. A.; Davis, K. D. (2007). "Interactions of pain intensity and cognitive load: the brain stays on task". Cerebral Cortex. 17 (6): 1412–1422. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhl052. PMID 16908493.
  27. ^ a b Urry, H. L. (2010). "Seeing, thinking, and feeling: emotion-regulating effects of gaze-directed cognitive reappraisal". Emotion. 10 (1): 125–135. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.514.4324. doi:10.1037/a0017434. PMID 20141309.
  28. ^ Kanske, Philipp; Heissler, Janine; Schönfelder, Sandra; Bongers, André; Wessa, Michèle (1 June 2011). "How to Regulate Emotion? Neural Networks for Reappraisal and Distraction". Cerebral Cortex. 21 (6): 1379–1388. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq216. ISSN 1047-3211. PMID 21041200.
  29. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema, S.; Morrow, J. (1993). "Effects of rumination and distraction on naturally occurring depressed mood". Cognition and Emotion. 7 (6): 561–570. doi:10.1080/02699939308409206.
  30. ^ a b Sheppes, G.; Scheibe, S.; Suri, G.; Gross, J. J. (2011). "Emotion-regulation choice". Psychological Science. 22 (11): 1391–1396. doi:10.1177/0956797611418350. PMID 21960251. S2CID 5283764.
  31. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema, S.; Wisco, B. E.; Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). "Rethinking rumination". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (5): 400–424. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x. PMID 26158958. S2CID 6415609.
  32. ^ Borkovec, T. D.; Robinson, E.; Pruzinsky, T.; DePree, J. A. (1983). "Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 21 (1): 9–16. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(83)90121-3. PMID 6830571.
  33. ^ Borkovec, T. D.; Inz, J. (1990). "The nature of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: A predominance of thought activity". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 28 (2): 153–158. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(90)90027-g. PMID 2183759.
  34. ^ Wegner, D. M.; Zanakos, S. (1994). "Chronic thought suppression". Journal of Personality. 62 (4): 615–640. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00311.x. PMID 7861307.
  35. ^ Davis, J. I.; Gross, J. J.; Ochsner, K. N. (2011). "Psychological distance and emotional experience: What you see is what you get". Emotion. 11 (2): 438–444. doi:10.1037/a0021783. PMID 21500912.
  36. ^ Moster, J. S.; Hartwig, R.; Moran, T. P.; Jendrusina, A. A.; Kross, E. (2014). "Neural markers of positive reappraisal and their associations with trait reappraisal and worry". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 123 (1): 91–105. doi:10.1037/a0035817. PMID 24661162.
  37. ^ Schartau, P. E.; Dalgleish, T.; Dunn, B. D. (2009). "Seeing the bigger picture: training in perspective broadening reduces self-reported affect and psychophysiological response to distressing films and autobiographical memories". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 118 (1): 15–27. doi:10.1037/a0012906. PMID 19222310. S2CID 33850126.
  38. ^ Makowski, D.; Sperduti, M.; Pelletier, J.; Blondé, P.; La Corte, V.; Arcangeli, M.; Zalla, T.; Lemaire, S.; Dokic, J.; Nicolas, S.; Piolino, P. (January 2019). "Phenomenal, bodily and brain correlates of fictional reappraisal as an implicit emotion regulation strategy". Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. 19 (4): 877–897. doi:10.3758/s13415-018-00681-0. PMID 30610654. S2CID 58591122.
  39. ^ Jackson, D. C.; Malmstadt, J. R.; Larson, C. L.; Davidson, R. J. (2000). "Suppression and enhancement of emotional responses to unpleasant pictures". Psychophysiology. 37 (4): 515–522. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.668.4076. doi:10.1111/1469-8986.3740515. PMID 10934910.
  40. ^ Ochsner, K. N.; Ray, R. R.; Cooper, J. C.; Robertson, E. R.; Chopra, S.; Gabrieli, J. D. E.; Gross, J. J. (2004). "For better or for worse: Neural systems supporting the cognitive down- and up-regulation of negative emotion". NeuroImage. 23 (2): 483–499. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.030. PMID 15488398. S2CID 16146101.
  41. ^ a b Gross, James; John, Oliver (2003). "Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 85 (2): 348–62. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.688.115. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348. PMID 12916575. S2CID 20541103.
  42. ^ a b Tamir, M (2009). "What do people want to feel and why? Pleasure and utility in emotion regulation". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 18 (2): 101–105. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.6507. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01617.x. S2CID 13845576.
  43. ^ Griffin, S.M.; Howard, S. (2021). "Instructed reappraisal and cardiovascular habituation to recurrent stress". Psychophysiology. 58 (5): e13783. doi:10.1111/psyp.13783. hdl:10344/10521. PMID 33538020. S2CID 231804264.
  44. ^ Ochsner, K. N.; Gross, J. J. (2008). "Cognitive emotion regulation: Insights from social, cognitive, affective neuroscience". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 17 (2): 153–158. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00566.x. PMC 4241349. PMID 25425765.
  45. ^ Ayduk, O.; Kross, E. (2009). "Asking why from a distance facilitates emotional processing: A reanalysis of Wimalaweera and Moulds (2008)". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 47 (1): 88–92. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.06.014. PMID 19013553.
  46. ^ Ayduk, O.; Kross, E. (2010). "From a distance: Implications of spontaneous self-distancing for adaptive self-reflection". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 98 (5): 809–829. doi:10.1037/a0019205. PMC 2881638. PMID 20438226.
  47. ^ Samson, A. C.; Gross, J. J. (2012). "Humour as emotion regulation: The differential consequences of negative versus positive humour". Cognition and Emotion. 26 (2): 375–384. doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.585069. PMID 21756218. S2CID 1173305.
  48. ^ Dan-Glauser, E. S.; Gross, J. J. (2011). "The temporal dynamics of two response-focused forms of emotion regulation: Experiential, expressive, and autonomic consequences". Psychophysiology. 48 (9): 1309–1322. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01191.x. PMC 3136552. PMID 21361967.
  49. ^ Butler, E. A.; Egloff, B.; Wlhelm, F. H.; Smith, N. C.; Erickson, E. A.; Gross, J. J. (2003). "The social consequences of expressive suppression". Emotion. 3 (1): 48–67. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.48. PMID 12899316. S2CID 18315833.
  50. ^ Richards, Jane (August 2004). "The Cognitive Consequences of Concealing Feelings". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 13 (4): 131–134. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00291.x. S2CID 146595050.
  51. ^ Sher, K. J. & Grekin, E. R. (2007). Alcohol and affect regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 560–580). New York: Guilford Press.
  52. ^ Oaten, Megan; Cheng, Ken (2006). "Longitudinal gains in self-regulation from regular physical exercise". British Journal of Health Psychology. 11 (4): 717–733. doi:10.1348/135910706X96481. PMID 17032494.
  53. ^ Taylor, C. Barr; Sallis, James F.; Needle, Richard (1985). "The Relation of Physical Activity and Exercise to Mental Health". Public Health Reports (1974-). 100 (2): 195–202. ISSN 0033-3549. JSTOR 20056436. PMC 1424736. PMID 3920718.
  54. ^ a b Walker, Matthew P. (March 2009). "The Role of Sleep in Cognition and Emotion" (PDF). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1156 (1): 168–197. Bibcode:2009NYASA1156..168W. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04416.x. PMID 19338508. S2CID 313685.
  55. ^ Beattie, Louise; Kyle, Simon D.; Espie, Colin A.; Biello, Stephany M. (December 2015). "Social interactions, emotion and sleep: A systematic review and research agenda". Sleep Medicine Reviews. 24: 83–100. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2014.12.005. PMID 25697832.
  56. ^ Rosenthal, M. Zachary; Gratz, Kim L.; Kosson, David S.; Cheavens, Jennifer S.; Lejuez, C. W.; Lynch, Thomas R. (1 January 2008). "Borderline personality disorder and emotional responding: A review of the research literature". Clinical Psychology Review. 28 (1): 75–91. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.001. ISSN 0272-7358. PMID 17544188.
  57. ^ "Borderline personality disorder (BPD)", Basic Notes in Psychopharmacology (0 ed.), CRC Press, pp. 77–78, 8 October 2018, doi:10.1201/9781315377971-12, ISBN 978-1-315-37797-1, retrieved 21 November 2024
  58. ^ Sansone, R.; Sansone, L. A. (1 July 2015). "BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER IN THE MEDICAL SETTING: Suggestive Behaviors, Syndromes, and Diagnoses". Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience. 12 (7–8): 39–44. PMC 4558791. PMID 26351624. S2CID 22843466.
  59. ^ Minzenberg, Michael J.; Fan, Jin; New, Antonia S.; Tang, Cheuk Y.; Siever, Larry J. (15 August 2007). "Fronto-limbic dysfunction in response to facial emotion in borderline personality disorder: An event-related fMRI study". Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 155 (3): 231–243. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.03.006. ISSN 0925-4927. PMC 2084368. PMID 17601709.
  60. ^ Rosenthal, M. Zachary; Gratz, Kim L.; Kosson, David S.; Cheavens, Jennifer S.; Lejuez, C. W.; Lynch, Thomas R. (1 January 2008). "Borderline personality disorder and emotional responding: A review of the research literature". Clinical Psychology Review. 28 (1): 75–91. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.001. ISSN 0272-7358. PMID 17544188.
  61. ^ Berking, Matthias; Wupperman, Peggilee; Reichardt, Alexander; Pejic, Tanja; Dippel, Alexandra; Znoj, Hansjörg (November 2008). "Emotion-regulation skills as a treatment target in psychotherapy". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 46 (11): 1230–1237. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.08.005. PMID 18835479.
  62. ^ Kring, Ann M.; Sloan, Denise M., eds. (2010). Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology: A Transdiagnostic Approach to Etiology and Treatment. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 9781606234501. OCLC 319318901.
  63. ^ Linehan, Marsha M. (2015). DBT Skills Training Manual (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. p. 382. ISBN 9781462516995. OCLC 883366057.
  64. ^ Derryberr, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (2001). Early temperament and emotional development. In A. F. Kalverboer & A. Gramsbergen (Eds.), Handbook of Brain and Behavior in Human Development (pp. 967–988). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
  65. ^ a b Rothbart, M., Ziaie, H., & O'Boyle, C. (1992). Self-regulation and emotion in infancy. In N. Eisenberg, & R. Fabes (Eds.), Emotion and Its Regulation in Early Development (pp. 7-23). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
  66. ^ Malatesta, C.Z.; Grigoryev, P.; Lamb, C.; Albin, M.; Culver, C. (1986). "Emotional socialization and expressive development in preterm and full-term infants". Child Development. 57 (2): 316–330. doi:10.2307/1130587. JSTOR 1130587. PMID 3956316.
  67. ^ Kochanska, G.; Coy, K. C.; Murray, K. Y. (2001). "The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life". Child Development. 72 (4): 1091–1111. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.333.4872. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00336. PMID 11480936.
  68. ^ Stifter, C. A.; Braungart, J. M. (1995). "The regulation of negative reactivity in infancy: Function and development". Developmental Psychology. 31 (3): 448–455. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.3.448.
  69. ^ Kopp, C (1982). "Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective". Developmental Psychology. 18 (2): 199–214. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199. S2CID 18870683.
  70. ^ Diener, M.; Mangelsdorf, S.; McHale, J.; Frosch, C. (2002). "Infants' behavioral strategies for emotion regulation with fathers and mothers: Associations with emotional expressions and attachment quality". Infancy. 3 (2): 153–174. doi:10.1207/s15327078in0302_3. PMID 33451203.
  71. ^ Buss, K.A.; Goldsmith, H.H. (1998). "Fear and anger regulation in infancy: Effects on temporal dynamics of affective expression". Child Development. 69 (2): 359–374. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06195.x. PMID 9586212.
  72. ^ Bridges, L.J.; Grolnick, W.S. (1995). "The development of the self-regulation of emotion in infancy and early childhood". Social Development. 15: 185–211.
  73. ^ a b Calkins, S. D., & Hill, A. (2007). Caregiver influence on emerging emotion regulation: Biological and environmental transactions in early development. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 229–248). New York: Guilford Press.
  74. ^ Sroufe, L. A. (1996). Emotional development: The organization of emotional life in the early years. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  75. ^ Kochanska, G (2001). "Emotional development in children with different attachment histories: The first three years". Child Development. 72 (2): 474–490. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00291. PMID 11333079.
  76. ^ Trehub, S. E.; Ghazban, N.; Corbeil, M. (2015). "Musical affect regulation in infancy". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1337 (1): 186–192. Bibcode:2015NYASA1337..186T. doi:10.1111/nyas.12622. PMID 25773634. S2CID 39093993.
  77. ^ Stamou, Lelouda; Evaggelou, Faiy; Stamou, Vasileios; Diamanti, Elisavet; Loewy, Joanne V. (24 April 2020). "The effects of live singing on the biophysiological functions of preterm infants hospitalized in a neonatal intensive care unit in Greece: A pilot study". Music and Medicine. 12 (2): 109–121. doi:10.47513/mmd.v12i2.703. ISSN 1943-863X.
  78. ^ a b Kopp, Claire B. (1989). "Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view". Developmental Psychology. 25 (3): 343–354. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.343.
  79. ^ Rueda, M. R., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2004). Attentional control and self-regulation. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 283–300). New York: Guilford Press.
  80. ^ Harris, P. L. (1983). "Children's understanding of the link between situation and emotion". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 33 (3): 1–20. doi:10.1016/0022-0965(83)90048-6.
  81. ^ Stegge, H. & Terwog, M. M. (2007). Awareness and regulation of emotion in typical and atypical development. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 269–286). New York: Guilford Press.
  82. ^ Caspi, A.; Moffitt, T.E.; Morgan, J.; Rutter, M.; Taylor, A.; Arseneault, L.; Tully, L.; Jacobs, C.; Kim-Cohen, J.; Polo-Tomas, M. (2004). "Maternal expressed emotion predicts children's antisocial behaviour problems: Using monozygotic-twin differences to identify environmental effects on behavioural development". Developmental Psychology. 40 (2): 149–161. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.149. PMID 14979757.
  83. ^ Eisenberg, N.; Zhou, Q.; Koller, S. (2001). "Brazilian adolescents' prosocial moral judgement and behaviour: Relations to sympathy, perspective-taking, gender-role orientation, and demographic characteristics". Child Development. 72 (2): 518–534. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00294. PMID 11333082.
  84. ^ Maughan, A.; Cicchetti, D. (2002). "Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotional regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment". Child Development. 73 (5): 1525–1542. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00488. PMID 12361317.
  85. ^ Valiente, C.; Fabes, R.A.; Eisenberg, N.; Spinrad, T.L. (2004). "The relations of parental expressivity and support to children's coping with daily stress". Journal of Family Psychology. 18 (1): 97–106. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.97. PMID 14992613.
  86. ^ Zeman, J.; Garber, J. (1996). "Display rules for anger, sadness, and pain: it depends on who is watching". Child Development. 67 (3): 957–973. doi:10.2307/1131873. JSTOR 1131873. PMID 8706538.
  87. ^ Garnefski, N.; Kraaij, V. (2006). "Relationships between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: A comparative study of five specific samples". Personality and Individual Differences. 40 (8): 1659–1669. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.009.
  88. ^ Luna, B.; Padmanabhan, A.; O'Hearn, K. (2010). "What has fMRI told us about the development of cognitive control through adolescence?". Brain and Cognition. 72 (1): 101–113. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.08.005. PMC 2815087. PMID 19765880.
  89. ^ Carstensen, L. A. L.; Fung, H.; Charlse, S. (2003). "Socioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life". Motivation and Emotion. 27 (2): 103–123. doi:10.1023/a:1024569803230. S2CID 143149171.
  90. ^ Lawton, M. P. (2001). "Emotion in later life". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 20 (4): 120–123. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00130. S2CID 146528874.
  91. ^ a b Ashby, F. Gregory; Isen, Alice M.; Turken, And U. (1999). "A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition". Psychological Review. 106 (3): 529–550. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.529. ISSN 1939-1471. PMID 10467897.
  92. ^ a b c O’Rourke, Norm; Cappeliez, Philippe; Claxton, Amy (1 March 2011). "Functions of reminiscence and the psychological well-being of young-old and older adults over time". Aging & Mental Health. 15 (2): 272–281. doi:10.1080/13607861003713281. ISSN 1360-7863. PMID 21140308. S2CID 34423670.
  93. ^ a b Urry, Heather L.; Gross, James J. (1 December 2010). "Emotion Regulation in Older Age". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 19 (6): 352–357. doi:10.1177/0963721410388395. ISSN 0963-7214. S2CID 1400335.
  94. ^ Mroczek, Daniel K. (June 2001). "Age and Emotion in Adulthood". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (3): 87–90. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00122. ISSN 0963-7214.
  95. ^ Magai, Carol; Consedine, Nathan S.; Krivoshekova, Yulia S.; Kudadjie-Gyamfi, Elizabeth; McPherson, Renee (June 2006). "Emotion experience and expression across the adult life span: Insights from a multimodal assessment study". Psychology and Aging. 21 (2): 303–317. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.2.303. ISSN 1939-1498. PMID 16768577.
  96. ^ Steptoe, Andrew; Leigh, Elizabeth S.; Kumari, Meena (December 2011). "Positive affect and distressed affect over the day in older people". Psychology and Aging. 26 (4): 956–965. doi:10.1037/a0023303. ISSN 1939-1498. PMID 21517182.
  97. ^ Labouvie-Vief, Gisela (December 2003). "Dynamic Integration:Affect, Cognition and the Self in Adulthood". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 12 (6): 201–206. doi:10.1046/j.0963-7214.2003.01262.x. S2CID 145494340.
  98. ^ Davidson, R. J. (1998). "Affective Style and Affective Disorders: Perspectives from Affective Neuroscience". Cognition and Emotion. 12 (3): 307–330. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.670.1877. doi:10.1080/026999398379628.
  99. ^ Ruef, Anna Marie; Levenson, Robert W. Coan, James A. (Ed); Allen, John J. B. (Ed) "Continuous measurement of emotion: The affect rating dial" (2007). Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment. Series in affective science., New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press, pp. 287–297.
  100. ^ Geschwind N.; Peeters, F; Drukker, M; Van Os, J; Wichers, M (2011). "Mindfulness training increases momentary positive emotions and reward experience in adults vulnerable to depression: A randomized controlled trial". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 79 (5): 618–28. doi:10.1037/a0024595. PMID 21767001. S2CID 3795249.
  101. ^ Frank, DW; Dewitt, M; Hudgens-Haney, ME; Schaeffer, DJ; Ball, BH; Schwarz, NF; Hussein, AA; Smart, LM; Sabatinelli, D (2014). "Emotion regulation: Quantitative meta-analysis of functional activation and deactivation". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 45: 202–211. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.06.010. PMID 24984244. S2CID 22933500.
  102. ^ de Joode, Niels T.; Thorsen, Anders L.; Vester, Eline L.; Vriend, Chris; Pouwels, Petra J.W.; Hagen, Kristen; Ousdal, Olga T.; Hansen, Bjarne; Kvale, Gerd; van den Heuvel, Odile A. (2022). "Longitudinal changes in neurometabolite concentrations in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex after concentrated exposure therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 299: 344–352. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.12.014. hdl:11250/2982832. PMID 34920037. S2CID 245266740.
  103. ^ Herwig, U.; Lutz, J.; Scherpiet, S.; Scheerer, H.; Kohlberg, J.; Opialla, S.; Preuss, A.; Steiger, V.R.; Sulzer, J.; Weidt, S.; Stämpfli, P.; Rufer, M.; Seifritz, E.; Jäncke, L.; Brühl, A.B. (2019). "Training emotion regulation through real-time fMRI neurofeedback of amygdala activity". NeuroImage. 184: 687–696. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.09.068. PMID 30287300. S2CID 52918820.
  104. ^ Davidson, R.J.; Putnam, K.M.; Larson, C.L. (2000). "Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation: A possible prelude to violence". Science. 289 (5479): 591–594. Bibcode:2000Sci...289..591D. doi:10.1126/science.289.5479.591. PMID 10915615. S2CID 9857157.
  105. ^ a b Elfenbein, H. A.; Ambady, N. (2002). "On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: a meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 128 (2): 203–235. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.203. PMID 11931516. S2CID 16073381.
  106. ^ Ekman, P.; Friesen, W. V.; Ancoli, S. (1980). "Facial signs of emotional experience". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 39 (6): 1125–1134. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.306.6112. doi:10.1037/h0077722. S2CID 14801813.
  107. ^ Izard, C. E. (1990). "Facial expressions and the regulation of emotions". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 58 (3): 487–498. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.3.487. PMID 2182826. S2CID 2627544.
  108. ^ Charles, S. T.; Carstensen, L. L. (2008). "Unpleasant situations elicit different emotional responses in younger and older adults". Psychology and Aging. 23 (3): 495–504. doi:10.1037/a0013284. PMC 2677442. PMID 18808240.
  109. ^ Holodynski, Manfred (2004). "The Miniaturization of Expression in the Development of Emotional Self-Regulation". Developmental Psychology. 40 (1): 16–28. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.1.16. ISSN 1939-0599. PMID 14700461.
  110. ^ Holodynski, Manfred (2004). "The Miniaturization of Expression in the Development of Self-Regulation of Emotion". Developmental Psychology. 40 (1): 16–28. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.1.16. PMID 14700461.
  111. ^ Gruhn, Meredith A.; Compas, Bruce E. (2020). "Effects of maltreatment on coping and emotion regulation in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review". Child Abuse & Neglect. 103: 104446. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104446. PMID 32200195. S2CID 214616457.
  112. ^ Wang, Manjie; Saudino, Kimberly J. (11 January 2011). "Emotion Regulation and Stress". Journal of Adult Development. 18 (2): 95–103. doi:10.1007/s10804-010-9114-7. ISSN 1068-0667. S2CID 144146368.
  113. ^ a b Shcherbatykh, Yu. V. (2000). "Self-Regulation of Autonomic Homeostasis in Emotional Stress". Human Physiology. 26 (5): 641–642. doi:10.1007/BF02760382. PMID 11059163. S2CID 36985305.
  114. ^ Griffin, Siobhán M.; Howard, Siobhán (2022). "Individual differences in emotion regulation and cardiovascular responding to stress". Emotion. 22 (2): 331–345. doi:10.1037/emo0001037. PMID 34807696. S2CID 244491171.
  115. ^ Miclea, M.; Miu, A. (2010). "Emotion Regulation and Decision Making Under Risk and Uncertainty". Emotion. 10 (2): 257–65. doi:10.1037/a0018489. PMID 20364902. S2CID 18194230.
  116. ^ Gross, J. J. (2002). "Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences". Psychophysiology. 39 (3): 281–91. doi:10.1017/s0048577201393198. PMID 12212647.
  117. ^ Wadley, G.; Smith, W.; Koval, P.; Gross, J. (2020). "Digital Emotion Regulation". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 29 (4): 412–418. doi:10.1177/0963721420920592. hdl:11343/235572. S2CID 215412759.
  118. ^ Rozgonjuk, D.; Elhai, J. (2021). "Emotion regulation in relation to smartphone use: Process smartphone use mediates the association between expressive suppression and problematic smartphone use". Current Psychology. 40 (7): 3246–3255. doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00271-4. S2CID 150551972.
  119. ^ Blumberg, F.; Rice, J.; Dickmeis, A. (2016). "Social media as a venue for emotion regulation among adolescents". In Tettegah, Sharon (ed.). Emotions, Technology, and Social Media. Elsevier, Amsterdam. pp. 105–116.
  120. ^ Myrick, Jessica (2015). "Emotion regulation, procrastination, and watching cat videos online: Who watches Internet cats, why, and to what effect?". Computers in Human Behavior. 52: 168–176. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.001. S2CID 16187524.
  121. ^ Bui, M.; Kemp, E. (2013). "E-tail emotion regulation: examining online hedonic product purchases". International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. 41 (2): 155–170. doi:10.1108/09590551311304338. S2CID 143290039.
  122. ^ Villani, D.; Carissoli, C.; Triberti, S.; Marchetti, A.; Gilli, G.; Riva, G. (2018). "Videogames for Emotion Regulation: A Systematic Review". Games for Health Journal. 7 (2): 85–99. doi:10.1089/g4h.2017.0108. hdl:2434/696407. PMID 29424555. S2CID 4701955.
  123. ^ Slovak, P.; Antle, A.; Theofanopoulou, N.; Roquet, C.; Gross, J.; Isbister, K. (2022). "Designing for emotion regulation interventions: an agenda for HCI theory and research". ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction. 30: 1–51. arXiv:2204.00118. doi:10.1145/3569898. S2CID 247922819.
  124. ^ Smith, W.; Wadley, G.; Webber, S.; Tag, B.; Kostakos, V.; Koval, P.; Gross, J. (2022). "Digital Emotion Regulation in Everyday Life". CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. pp. 1–15. doi:10.1145/3491102.3517573. ISBN 9781450391573. S2CID 248419517.
  125. ^ Bandura, A.; Caprara, G. V.; Barbaranelli, C.; Gerbino, M.; Pastorelli, C. (2003). "Role of Affective Self-Regulatory Efficacy in Diverse Spheres of Psychosocial Functioning". Child Development. 74 (3): 769–82. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00567. JSTOR 3696228. PMID 12795389. S2CID 6671293.
  126. ^ Cloitre, Marylene; Khan, Christina; Mackintosh, Margaret-Anne; Garvert, Donn W.; Henn-Haase, Clare M.; Falvey, Erin C.; Saito, Jean (January 2019). "Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between ACES and physical and mental health". Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 11 (1): 82–89. doi:10.1037/tra0000374. ISSN 1942-969X. PMID 29745688. S2CID 13664483.
  127. ^ Hamre, Bridget K.; Pianta, Robert C. (March–April 2001). "Early Teacher–Child Relationships and the Trajectory of Children's School Outcomes through Eighth Grade". Child Development. 72 (2): 625–638. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00301. ISSN 0009-3920. PMID 11333089.
  128. ^ Reijntjesa, A.; Kamphuisb, J. H.; Prinziea, P.; Telchc, M.J. (2010). "Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies". Child Abuse & Neglect. 34 (4): 244–52. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.009. PMID 20304490.
  129. ^ "Emotional Regulation and Executive Function". 8 July 2021.
  130. ^ a b c Pfirman, Nicole; Rivera, Chelsea; Saffer, Abe (30 March 2022). "Health Promotion and Wellness for All Students: School-Based Occupational Therapy as a Preventive Approach". The American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 77 (2). doi:10.5014/ajot.2023.050242. PMID 36996456.
  131. ^ Mutter, Carly (April 2016). "The Use of the Zones of Regulation® in an Elementary School: Student and Teacher Perceptions". Occupational Therapy: Student Scholarship & Creative Works.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotional_self-regulation&oldid=1262189160"