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In politics, a dog whistle is the use of coded or suggestive language in political messaging to garner support from a particular group without provoking opposition. The concept is named after ultrasonic dog whistles, which are audible to dogs but not humans. Dog whistles use language that appears normal to the majority but communicates specific things to intended audiences. They are generally used to convey messages on issues likely to provoke controversy without attracting negative attention.

Origin and meaning

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According to William Safire, the term dog whistle in reference to politics may have been derived from its use in the field of opinion polling. Safire quotes Richard Morin, director of polling for The Washington Post, as writing in 1988:

subtle changes in question-wording sometimes produce remarkably different results ... researchers call this the "Dog Whistle Effect": Respondents hear something in the question that researchers do not.[1]

He speculates that campaign workers adapted the phrase from political pollsters.[1]

In her 2006 book Voting for Jesus: Christianity and Politics in Australia, academic[clarification needed] Amanda Lohrey writes that the goal of the dog-whistle is to appeal to the greatest possible number of electors while alienating the smallest possible number. She uses as an example politicians choosing broadly appealing words such as "family values", which have extra resonance for Christians, while avoiding overt Christian moralizing that might be a turn-off for non-Christian voters.[2]

Australian political theorist Robert E. Goodin argues that the problem with dog-whistling is that it undermines democracy, because if voters have different understandings of what they were supporting during a campaign, the fact that they were seeming to support the same thing is "democratically meaningless" and does not give the dog-whistler a policy mandate.[3]

History and usage

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Australia

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The term was first picked up in Australian politics in the mid-1990s, and was frequently applied to the political campaigning of John Howard.[4] Throughout his 11 years as Australian prime minister and particularly in his fourth term, Howard was accused of communicating messages appealing to anxious Australian voters using code words such as "un-Australian", "mainstream", and "illegals".[5][6]

One notable example was the Howard government's message on refugee arrivals. His government's tough stance on immigration was popular with voters, but was accused of using the issue to additionally send veiled messages of support to voters with racist leanings,[7] while maintaining plausible deniability by avoiding overtly racist language.[8] Another example was the publicity of the Australian citizenship test in 2007.[8] It has been argued that the test may appear reasonable at face value, but is really intended to appeal to those opposing immigration from particular geographic regions.[9]

Canada

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During the 2015 Canadian federal election, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) reported on a controversy involving the Conservative party leader, incumbent Prime Minister Stephen Harper, using the phrase "old-stock Canadians" in a debate, apparently to appeal to his party's base supporters. Commentators, including pollster Frank Graves and former Quebec Liberal MP Marlene Jennings, saw this as a codeword historically used against non-white immigrants.[10]

Midway through the election campaign, the Conservative Party had hired Australian political strategist Lynton Crosby as a political adviser when they fell to third place in the polls - behind the Liberal Party and the New Democratic Party.[11] On 17 September 2015, during a televised election debate, Stephen Harper, while discussing the government's controversial decision to remove certain immigrants and refugee claimants from accessing Canada's health care system, made reference to "Old Stock Canadians" as being in support of the government's position. Marlene Jennings called his words racist and divisive, as they are used to exclude Canadians of colour.[10]

Indonesia

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Darmawan Prasodjo notes the use of the concept of "strong leadership" as a dog whistle in the context of Indonesian politics.[12]

United Kingdom

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Lynton Crosby, who had previously managed John Howard's four election campaigns in Australia, worked as a Conservative Party adviser during the 2005 UK general election, and the term was introduced to British political discussion at this time.[1] In what Goodin calls "the classic case" of dog-whistling,[3] Crosby created a campaign for the Conservatives with the slogan "Are you thinking what we're thinking?": a series of posters, billboards, TV commercials and direct mail pieces with messages like "It's not racist to impose limits on immigration" and "how would you feel if a bloke on early release attacked your daughter?"[13] focused on controversial issues like insanitary hospitals, land grabs by squatters and restraints on police behaviour.[14][15]

United States

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20th century

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The phrase "states' rights", literally referring to powers of individual state governments in the United States, was described in 2007 by journalist David Greenberg in Slate as "code words" for institutionalized segregation and racism.[16] States' rights was the banner under which groups like the Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties argued in 1955 against school desegregation.[17] In 1981, former Republican Party strategist Lee Atwater, when giving an anonymous interview discussing former president Richard Nixon's Southern strategy, speculated that terms like "states' rights" were used for dog-whistling:[18][19][20]

You start out in 1954 by saying, "Nigger, nigger, nigger." By 1968, you can't say "nigger" – that hurts you. Backfires. So you say stuff like forced busing, states' rights, and all that stuff. You're getting so abstract now, you're talking about cutting taxes. And all these things you're talking about are totally economic things and a byproduct of them is [that] blacks get hurt worse than whites. And subconsciously maybe that is part of it. I'm not saying that. But I'm saying that if it is getting that abstract, and that coded, that we are doing away with the racial problem one way or the other. You follow me – because obviously sitting around saying, "We want to cut this" is much more abstract than even the busing thing, and a hell of a lot more abstract than "Nigger, nigger."[21]

Atwater was contrasting this with then-President Ronald Reagan's campaign, which he felt "was devoid of any kind of racism, any kind of reference". However, Ian Haney López, an American law professor and author of the 2014 book Dog Whistle Politics, described Reagan as "blowing a dog whistle" when the candidate told stories about "Cadillac-driving 'welfare queens' and 'strapping young bucks' buying T-bone steaks with food stamps" while he was campaigning for the presidency.[22][23][24] He argues that such rhetoric pushes middle-class white Americans to vote against their economic self-interest in order to punish "undeserving minorities" who, they believe, are receiving too much public assistance at their expense. According to López, conservative middle-class whites, convinced by powerful economic interests that minorities are the enemy, supported politicians who promised to curb illegal immigration and crack down on crime but inadvertently also voted for policies that favor the extremely rich, such as slashing taxes for top income brackets, giving corporations more regulatory control over industry and financial markets, union busting, cutting pensions for future public employees, reducing funding for public schools, and retrenching the social welfare state. He argues that these same voters cannot link rising inequality which has affected their lives to the policy agendas they support, which resulted in a massive transfer of wealth to the top 1 percent of the population since the 1980s.[25][26]

In the U.S., the phrase "international bankers" is a well-known dog whistle code for Jews. Its use as such is derived from the anti-Semitic fabrication The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. It was frequently used by the fascist-supporting radio personality Charles Coughlin on his national show. His repeated use of the term was a factor in the distributor CBS opting not to renew his contract.[27] The word "globalists" is similarly widely considered an anti-Semitic dog whistle.[28][29][30][31]

21st century

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Journalist Craig Unger wrote that President George W. Bush and Karl Rove used coded "dog-whistle" language in political campaigning, delivering one message to the overall electorate while at the same time delivering quite a different message to a targeted evangelical Christian political base.[32] William Safire, in Safire's Political Dictionary, offered the example of Bush's criticism during the 2004 presidential campaign of the U.S. Supreme Court's 1857 Dred Scott decision denying the U.S. citizenship of any African American. To most listeners the criticism seemed innocuous, Safire wrote, but "sharp-eared observers" understood the remark to be a pointed reminder that Supreme Court decisions can be reversed, and a signal that, if re-elected, Bush might nominate to the Supreme Court a justice who would overturn Roe v. Wade.[1] This view is echoed in a 2004 Los Angeles Times article by Peter Wallsten.[33]

During Barack Obama's campaign and presidency, a number of left-wing commentators described various statements about Obama as racist dog-whistles. During the 2008 Democratic primaries, writer Enid Lynette Logan criticized Hillary Clinton's campaign's reliance on code words and innuendo seemingly designed to frame Barack Obama's race as problematic, saying Obama was characterized by the Clinton campaign and its prominent supporters as anti-white due to his association with Rev. Jeremiah Wright, as able to attract only black votes, as anti-patriotic, a drug user, possibly a drug seller, and married to an angry, ungrateful black woman.[34] A light-hearted 2008 article by Amy Chozick in The Wall Street Journal questioned whether Obama was too thin to be elected president, given the average weight of Americans; commentator Timothy Noah wrote that this was a racist dog-whistle, because "When white people are invited to think about Obama's physical appearance, the principal attribute they're likely to dwell on is his dark skin."[35] In a 2010 speech, Sarah Palin criticized Obama, saying "we need a commander in chief, not a professor of law standing at the lectern". Harvard professor (and Obama ally) Charles Ogletree called this attack racist, because the true idea being communicated was "that he's not one of us".[36] MSNBC commentator Lawrence O'Donnell called a 2012 speech by Mitch McConnell, in which McConnell criticized Obama for playing too much golf, a racist dog-whistle because O'Donnell felt it was meant to remind listeners of black golfer Tiger Woods, who at the time was going through an infidelity scandal.[37]

In 2012, Obama's campaign ran an ad in Ohio that said Mitt Romney was "not one of us".[38] The Washington Post journalist Karen Tumulty wrote: "ironically, it echoes a slogan that has been used as a racial code over at least the past half-century".[39]

During the 2016 presidential election campaign and on a number of occasions throughout his presidency, Donald Trump was accused of using racial and antisemitic "dog whistling" techniques by politicians and major news outlets.[40][41][42][43][44] New York Times columnist Ross Douthat remarked that the Trump campaign "slogan 'Make America Great Again' can be read as a dog-whistle to some whiter and more Anglo-Saxon past".[45]

Former Fox News anchor Tucker Carlson has been reported to use dog-whistling tactics on his former commentary show Tucker Carlson Tonight.[46][47][48]

During the 2018 gubernatorial race in Florida, Ron DeSantis came under criticism for comments that were allegedly racist, saying: "The last thing we need to do is to monkey this up by trying to embrace a socialist agenda with huge tax increases and bankrupting the state. That is not going to work. That's not going to be good for Florida."[49] DeSantis was accused of using the verb "monkey" as a racist dog whistle; his opponent, Andrew Gillum, was an African American. DeSantis denied that his comment was meant to be racially charged.[50]

Italy

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Roberto Saviano of The Guardian claimed that Italian right-wing politician Giorgia Meloni used the Mussolini-era slogan "God, homeland, family" as a dog-whistle to signal her anti-immigration stance, and in 2019, she used her identity as a dog whistle, proclaiming at a rally: "I am Giorgia, I am a woman, I am a mother, I am Italian, I am a Christian."[51] Washington Post columnist Philip Bump contended that Meloni has used the term "financial speculators"[52] as a dog-whistle to conceal antisemitism.

Criticism

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Academics disagree on whether the dog-whistle notion has conceptual validity and furthermore on the mechanisms by which discourses identified as dog-whistles function. For instance, the sociologist Barry Hindess criticized Josh Fear's and Robert E. Goodin's respective attempts to theorize dog-whistles on the grounds that they did not pass the Weberian test of value neutrality: "In the case of the concept of ‘dog-whistle politics,' we find that the investigator's—in this case, Fear's—disapproval enters into the definition of the object of study. Goodin avoids this problem, clearly signalling his disapproval—for example, with his ‘particularly pernicious' (2008, p. 224)—but not letting it interfere with his own conceptualisation of the phenomenon. The difficulty here is that this abstinence leaves him with no real distinction between the general phenomena of coded messaging […] and dog whistling in particular, leaving us to suspect that dog whistling should be seen not so much as a novel form of rhetoric, but rather, to borrow an image from Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan, as a familiar form misliked."[53]

In effect, the philosopher Carlos Santana corroborates Hindess's criticism of the dog-whistle notion as being dependent on the investigator's social and moral values during his own attempted definition, writing: "We don't want every instance of bi-level meaning in political discourse to count as dog whistles, because not every instance of political doublespeak is problematic in the way prototypical dog whistles like welfare queen and family values are. Some, like backhanded compliments to political rivals, aren't a major source of social ills. Some, like aspirational hypocrisy (Quill 2010) and deliberate doublespeak meant to bring diverse constituencies together (Maloyed 2011), might even be socially beneficial. Keep in mind what makes dog whistles problematic: they harm disadvantaged groups, undermine our ability to have a functioning plural society, and muddle our ability to reliably hold political figures responsible for their actions. Given our interest in addressing these harms, it makes sense to limit our definition of dog whistles to the types of bi-level meaning which engender them."[54]

For another instance of criticism, albeit from another direction, the psychologist Steven Pinker has remarked that the concept of dog whistling allows people to "claim that anyone says anything because you can easily hear the alleged dogwhistles that aren't in the actual literal contents of what the person says".[55]

Mark Liberman has argued that it is common for speech and writing to convey messages that will only be picked up on by part of the audience, but that this does not usually mean that the speaker is deliberately conveying a double message.[56]

Finally, Robert Henderson and Elin McCready argue that plausible deniability is a key characteristic of dog whistles.[57]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b c d Safire, William (2008). Safire's Political Dictionary (Revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-19-534334-2.
  2. ^ Lohrey, Amanda (2006). Voting for Jesus: Christianity and Politics in Australia. Melbourne: Black Inc. pp. 48–58. ISBN 1-86395-230-6.
  3. ^ a b Goodin, Robert E. (2008). Innovating Democracy: Democratic Theory and Practice after the Deliberative Turn (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 224–228. ISBN 978-0-19-954794-4.
  4. ^ Grant Barrett, The official dictionary of unofficial English, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006, p. 90
  5. ^ Soutphommasane, Tim (2009). Reclaiming Patriotism: Nation-building for Australian Progressives. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-521-13472-9.
  6. ^ Gelber, Katharine (2011). Speech Matters: Getting Free Speech Right. St Lucia, Qld.: University of Queensland Press. pp. end–notes. ISBN 978-0-7022-3873-4.
  7. ^ Garran, Robert (2004). True believer: John Howard, George Bush and the American Alliance. Allen & Unwin. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-74114-418-5. Archived from the original on July 26, 2023. Retrieved August 5, 2016 – via Google Books.
  8. ^ a b Fear, Josh (September 2007). "Under the Radar: Dog-whistle Politics in Australia]" (PDF). TAI.org.au. The Australia Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
  9. ^ "No Question About a Citizenship Test". The Sydney Morning Herald. December 13, 2006. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
  10. ^ a b "Harper's 'Old-stock Canadians' Line is Part Deliberate Strategy: Pollster". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. September 18, 2015. Archived from the original on February 5, 2021. Retrieved May 6, 2016. Former Quebec Liberal MP Marlene Jennings took offence to Harper's use of the phrase in the debate. ... "All my life that word has been used to say I'm not a real Canadian," said Jennings, who was the first black woman from Quebec to be elected to Parliament.
  11. ^ Chase, Steven (September 11, 2015). "Controversial Australian strategist to help with Tories' campaign". Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved May 6, 2016.
  12. ^ Darmawan Prasodjo (December 28, 2021). Jokowi and the New Indonesia: A Political Biography. Translated by Hannigan, Tim. North Clarendon, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 9781462922758. Retrieved November 18, 2023. With a 'strong leader,' the argument went, Indonesia had been better run. [...] On the campaign trail, Prabowo Subianto dressed in a retro white safari suit and black peci (cap), and did a passable impression of Sukarno at the microphone, while at the same time deploying dog-whistle references to 'strong leadership.'
  13. ^ Lees-Marshment, Jennifer (2009). Political Marketing: Principles and Applications. London: Routledge. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-415-43128-6.
  14. ^ McCallister, J. F. O. (April 3, 2005). "Whistling in the Dark?". Time. Archived from the original on February 13, 2013. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
  15. ^ Seawright, David (2007). The British Conservative Party and One Nation Politics. London: Continuum. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-8264-8974-6.
  16. ^ Greenberg, David (November 20, 2007). "Dog-Whistling Dixie". Slate.com. Archived from the original on November 24, 2007. Retrieved April 11, 2024.
  17. ^ "A Plan for Virginia Presented to the People of the Commonwealth by the Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties". Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties. June 8, 1955. Archived from the original on August 30, 2017. Retrieved August 30, 2017 – via Old Dominion University Libraries Digital Collections.
  18. ^ Lamis, Alexander P.; et al. (1990). The Two Party South. Oxford University Press.
  19. ^ Herbert, Bob (October 6, 2005), "Impossible, Ridiculous, Repugnant", The New York Times, archived from the original on January 4, 2012, retrieved February 5, 2016
  20. ^ Exclusive: Lee Atwater's Infamous 1981 Interview on the Southern Strategy on YouTube
  21. ^ Craig S. Pascoe; Karen Trahan Leathem; Andy Ambrose (2005). The American South in the Twentieth Century. University of Georgia Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-8203-2771-6. Archived from the original on July 26, 2023. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
  22. ^ Haney López, Ian (2014). Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-996427-7.
  23. ^ "Ian Haney López on the Dog Whistle Politics of Race (Part I) | Moyers & Company". BillMoyers.com. Archived from the original on December 17, 2022. Retrieved July 16, 2023.
  24. ^ Yao, Kevin (November 9, 2015). "A Coded Political Mantra". Berkeley Political Review. University of California Berkeley. Archived from the original on July 10, 2017. Retrieved February 5, 2016.
  25. ^ "Ian Haney López on the Dog Whistle Politics of Race, Part I". Moyers & Company. February 28, 2014. Archived from the original on August 15, 2017. Retrieved January 4, 2015 – via BillMoyers.com.
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  27. ^ MacWilliams, Matthew C. (2020). "All Lies Matter". On fascism: 12 Lessons from American history. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 30–41. ISBN 9781250752697. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved May 23, 2022.
  28. ^ Aaronovich, David. "Is 'globalist' an antisemitic dog-whistle? Well it depends who's using it". The Jewish Chronicle. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023.
  29. ^ "Trump accused of using antisemitic trope during UN speech". The Independent. September 25, 2019. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023.
  30. ^ Zimmer, Ben (March 14, 2018). "The Origins of the 'Globalist' Slur". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on July 26, 2023.
  31. ^ Goodkind, Nicole (August 2018). "Donald Trump Keeps Calling Adversaries 'Globalists,' Despite Warnings It's Anti-Semitic". Newsweek. Archived from the original on March 29, 2023.
  32. ^ Unger, Craig (2007). "11. Dog Whistle Politics". The Fall of the House of Bush: The Untold Story of How a Band of True Believers Seized the Executive Branch, Started the Iraq War, and Still Imperils America's Future. Simon & Schuster. pp. 172–173. ISBN 978-0-7432-8075-4.
  33. ^ Wallsten, Peter (October 13, 2004). "Abortion Foes Call Bush's Dred Scott Reference Perfectly Clear". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 22, 2013. Retrieved November 19, 2013.
  34. ^ Logan, Enid Lynette (October 2011). 'At This Defining Moment': Barack Obama's Presidential Candidacy and the New Politics of Race. New York University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8147-5298-2.
  35. ^ Taranto, James (August 5, 2008). "Noah's Shark". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved May 28, 2021.
  36. ^ Taranto, James (February 11, 2010). "Hot Enough for You?". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved May 28, 2021.
  37. ^ Gillespie, Nick (August 30, 2012). "MSNBC's Lawrence O'Donnell: Mocking Obama's Golfing is an Attempt to Portray Him as an Oversexed Black Man". Reason. Archived from the original on January 29, 2023. Retrieved May 28, 2021.
  38. ^ Made in Ohio – Obama for America TV Ad on YouTube
  39. ^ Tumulty, Karen (October 22, 2012). "Obama's 'not one of us' attack on Romney echoes racial code". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 30, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
  40. ^ Stokols, Eli (September 3, 2015). "Jeb: Trump using racial 'dog whistle'". Politico.com. Archived from the original on August 30, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2017.
  41. ^ Greenberg, Cheryl (October 26, 2016). "Donald Trump's conspiracy theories sound anti-Semitic. Does he even realize it?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 20, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2017.
  42. ^ Bernstein, David (March 20, 2017). "On anti-Semitism and dog whistles". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 21, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2017.
  43. ^ Memoli, Michael (November 3, 2016). "Condemning Trump's 'dog-whistle' campaign, Clinton cites endorsement in KKK newspaper". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 11, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2017.
  44. ^ Capehart, Jonathan (July 6, 2017). "Trump's white-nationalist dog whistles in Warsaw". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 12, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
  45. ^ Douthat, Ross (August 10, 2015). "The Donald and Decadence". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 26, 2023. Retrieved April 26, 2023.
  46. ^ ""The America We Know Doesn't Exist Anymore": Fox's Dog Whistle Becomes an Air Horn". Vanity Fair. August 10, 2018. Archived from the original on March 25, 2023. Retrieved May 8, 2023.
  47. ^ "ADL: Fox should fire Carlson for white-supremacist rhetoric". AP NEWS. April 20, 2021. Archived from the original on December 26, 2021. Retrieved May 8, 2023.
  48. ^ Davies, Dave. "Has Tucker Carlson created the most racist show in the history of cable news?". NPR. Archived from the original on June 28, 2023. Retrieved May 8, 2023.
  49. ^ "Gillum responds to 'monkey this up' comment: DeSantis is joining Trump 'in the swamp'". NBC News. Archived from the original on June 17, 2022. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
  50. ^ "Florida's Ron DeSantis Doubles Down on 'Monkey This Up' Comment". Roll Call. August 30, 2018. Archived from the original on January 7, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
  51. ^ "Giorgia Meloni is a danger to Italy and the rest of Europe | Italy | The Guardian". amp.theguardian.com. Archived from the original on July 18, 2023. Retrieved July 19, 2023.
  52. ^ That Giorgia Meloni speech captivating the U.S. right doesn't make sense Archived January 5, 2023, at the Wayback Machine Washington Post, Philip Bump, September 27, 2022
  53. ^ Hindess, Barry (August 31, 2023). Whistling the Dog. Australia National University Press. pp. 143–154. ISBN 9781925021868. JSTOR j.ctt13www0c.12. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2023.
  54. ^ Santana, Carlos (2022). "What's wrong with dog-whistles". Journal of Social Philosophy. 53 (3): 387–403. doi:10.1111/josp.12409. S2CID 233649655. Archived from the original on August 23, 2023. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
  55. ^ Bailey, Ronald (July 10, 2020). "Steven Pinker Beats Cancel Culture Attack". Reason magazine. Archived from the original on July 14, 2020. Retrieved September 25, 2020.
  56. ^ Liberman, Mark (September 26, 2006). "The comma was really a dog whistle". University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on October 13, 2020. Retrieved August 28, 2020.
  57. ^ Henderson, Robert; McCready, Elin (2018). "How Dogwhistles Work". New Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 10838. pp. 231–240. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93794-6_16. ISBN 978-3-319-93793-9. S2CID 51876325. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved October 4, 2020.

General and cited references

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Further reading

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