Jump to content

Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Cuba (1902–1959))

Republic of Cuba
República de Cuba
1902–1906[1]
1909–1959
Coat of arms of Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)
Coat of arms
Anthem: La Bayamesa
"The Bayamo Song"
Location of Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)
StatusSovereign state (1902–1906), (1909–1959)
U.S. military occupation (1906–1909)
Capital
and largest city
Havana
Official languagesSpanish
Religion
Catholic Church
Demonym(s)Cuban
Government
President 
• 1902–1906 (first)
Tomás E. Palma
• 1952–1959
Fulgencio Batista
• 1959 (last)
Carlos Piedra
Vice President 
• 1902-1905 (first)
Luis Estévez y Romero
• 1955-1959 (last)
Rafael Guas Inclán
Prime Minister 
• 1940–1942 (first)
Carlos S. Zayas
• 1959 (last)
José M. Cardona
LegislatureCongress
• Upper chamber
Senate
• Lower chamber
House of Representatives
History 
12 June 1901
20 May 1902
17 February 1903
1906–1909
29 May 1934
10 October 1940
• Admitted to the UN
24 October 1945
10 March 1952
1 January 1959
16 April 1961
Area
• Total
110,860 km2 (42,800 sq mi)
• Water (%)
0.94
CurrencyPeso (CUP)
Time zoneUTC−5 (CST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC−4 (CDT)
Drives onright
Calling code+53
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
1902:
US Military
Government
1909:
US Provisional
Government
1906:
US Provisional
Government
1959:
Socialist State of Cuba
Part of a series on the
History of Cuba
Governorate of Cuba (1511–1519)
Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821)
Captaincy General of Cuba (1607–1898)
US Military Government (1898–1902)
Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)
Republic of Cuba (1959–)
Timeline
Topical
flag Cuba portal

The Republic of Cuba, covering the historical period in Cuban history between 1902 and 1959, was an island country comprised the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud (since 1925) and several minor archipelagos. It was located where the northern Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic Ocean meet. The period began in 1902 following the end of its first U.S. military occupation years after Cuba declared independence in 1898 from the Spanish Empire. This era included various changing governments and US military occupations, and ended with the outbreak of the Cuban Revolution in 1959. During this period, the United States exerted great influence on Cuban politics, notably through the Platt Amendment.[8][9][10][11]

The governments of Cuba between independence from Spain and the Revolution have been regarded as client state of the United States.[12] From 1902 to 1934 Cuban and United States law included the Platt Amendment, which guaranteed the US right to intervene in Cuba and placed restrictions on Cuban foreign relations.[13] In 1934, Cuba and the United States signed the Treaty of Relations in which Cuba was obligated to give preferential treatment of its economy to the United States, in exchange the United States gave Cuba a guaranteed 22 percent share of the US sugar market that later was amended to a 49 percent share in 1949.[14]

The country continued to use the 1940 Constitution until the new constitution was promulgated in 1976.

1902–1933: Early governments

[edit]
Raising the Cuban flag on the Governor General's Palace at noon on 20 May 1902.

After the Spanish–American War, Spain and the United States signed the 1898 Treaty of Paris, by which Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States for the sum of $20 million (equivalent to $730 million in 2023).[15] With the end of United States Military Government (USMG) jurisdiction, Cuba gained formal independence on 20 May 1902, as the Republic of Cuba.[16] Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, the U.S. leased the Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba.

US occupation, 1906–1909

[edit]
Main article: Second Occupation of Cuba

Following political purging and a corrupt and rigged election in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by veterans of the war.[17] As in the independence war, Afro-Cubans were overrepresented in the insurgent army of 1906. For them, the August Revolution revived hopes for a 'rightful share' in Cuba's government. On 16 August 1906, fearing the government ready to smash the plot, former Liberation Army general Pino Guerra raised the banner of revolt. Immediately, Palma arrested every Liberal politician within reach; the remainder went underground. In an effort to avert intervention, Roosevelt sent two emissaries to Havana to seek a compromise between government and opposition. Regarding such neutrality as a censure of his government, Estrada Palma resigned and made his entire cabinet resign too, leaving the Republic without a government and forcing the United States to take control of the island. Roosevelt immediately proclaimed that the USA had been compelled to intervene in Cuba and that their only purpose was to create the necessary conditions for a peaceful election.[18]

1909–1924

[edit]

In 1909, home-rule government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was inaugurated as Cuba's second president, while the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In the War of 1912, the Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,[19] but was suppressed by the Cuban National Army under General Monteagudo, with considerable bloodshed.

Sugar production played an important role in Cuban politics and economics. In the 1910s, during and after World War I, a shortage in the world sugar supply fueled an economic boom in Cuba, marked by prosperity and the conversion of more and more farmland to sugar cultivation. Prices peaked and then crashed in 1920, ruining the country financially and allowing foreign investors to gain more power than they already had. This economic turbulence was called "the Dance of the Millions".[20][21]

Machado era

[edit]

In 1924, Gerardo Machado was elected president. During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate the influx of tourists. The tourist boom led to increases in gambling and prostitution in Cuba.[22] Machado initially enjoyed support from much of the public and from all the country's major political parties. However, his popularity declined steadily. In 1928 he held an election which was to give him another term, this one of six years, despite his promise to serve only for one term; Machado was the only candidate.

1933–1958: Unrest and new governments

[edit]

Revolution of 1933

[edit]
Main article: Cuban Revolution of 1933

The Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to precipitous drops in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression.[23] Protesting students, known as the Generation of 1930, and a clandestine terrorist organization known as the ABC, turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado.[23]

US ambassador Sumner Welles arrived in May 1933 and began a diplomatic campaign which involved "mediation" with opposition groups in including the ABC. This campaign significantly weakened Machado's government and, backed with the threat of military intervention, set the stage for a regime change.[24]

A general strike (in which the Popular Socialist Party sided with Machado),[25] uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, son of Cuban patriot Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and former ambassador to the US.[23]

The Pentarchy of 1933. Fulgencio Batista, who controlled the military, appears at far right.

In September 1933, the Sergeants' Revolt, led by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista, overthrew Céspedes.[26] General Alberto Herrera served briefly as president ( 12–13 August) followed by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada from 13 August until 5 September 1933. A five-member executive committee (the Pentarchy of 1933) was chosen to head a provisional government.[27] They were ousted by a student-led organization, the Student Directory, which appointed Ramon Grau San Martin as provisional president and passed various reforms during the ensuing One Hundred Days Government.[27] Grau resigned in 1934, after which Batista dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet-presidents.[26] The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare".[28]

Constitution of 1940

[edit]

A new constitution was adopted in 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labor and health care.[29] Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944.[30] He is so far the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office.[31][32][33] His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Cuban Communist Party held office under his administration.[34] Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II, although president Batista suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American assault on Francoist Spain to overthrow its authoritarian regime.[35]

Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's structures preventing his re-election.[36] Ramón Grau San Martin was the winner of the next election, in 1944.[30] Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the Cuban political system, in particular by undermining the deeply flawed, though not entirely ineffectual, Congress and Supreme Court.[37] Carlos Prío Socarrás, a protégé of Grau, became president in 1948.[30]

Batista dictatorship

[edit]
See also: 1952 Cuban coup d'état
Slum (bohio) dwellings in Havana, Cuba in 1954, just outside Havana baseball stadium. In the background is advertising for a nearby casino.

Before presidential election in 1952, Batista staged a coup.[38] Back in power and receiving financial, military and logistical support from the United States government, Batista suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike. He outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952.[39] He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners who owned the largest sugar plantations, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans. Eventually it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land. As such, Batista's repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships with both the American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts. To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—which was subsequently displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—Batista established tighter censorship of the media, while also using his Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions. These murders mounted in 1957, as socialism became more influential. Many people were killed, with estimates ranging from hundreds to about 20,000 people killed. Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.[40]

While Cuba had the highest ratio of hospital beds to population in Latin America, around 80% of these beds were located in the city of Havana, there was only one rural hospital and it was equipped with only 10 beds.[41] In 1951 the World Bank reported that between 80 and 90% of children in rural areas suffered from some form of intestinal parasites, in 1956 about 13% of the rural population had a history of typhoid and 14% at one point had tuberculosis.[42] A study conducted in 1959 by public health authorities found that throughout the country around 72% of the population was afflicted with parasitism and in the rural areas this percentage was as high as 86.54%.[41] Only 11% of farm worker families drank milk, and rural infant mortality stood at 100 per 1000 live births.[43] Only 1 in 4 peasants were able to afford regularly eating meat, eggs and fish and chronic unemployment was at 25%.[44] Cuba was a very unequal society with a mere 8% of landowners owning approximately 75% of the land, and while one-fifth of the population took in 58% of the national income, the bottom fifth got 2% of it, the lowest rates for the bottom 20% in the world then and even now.[45]

Cuba was also under a lot of influence from the United States to the point where the US controlled 80% of Cuba's trade.[45] In 1959 around 40% of Cuban sugar land, almost all the cattle ranches, 90% of mines and 80% of the utilities were owned by American firms.[46]

In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards.[47] On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.[48] Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.[31][49] Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.[31] The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end.[31][32] Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958 during the Cuban Revolution.[38]

Economy

[edit]

Tourism

[edit]

Between 1915 and 1930, Havana hosted more tourists than any other location in the Caribbean.[50] The influx was due in large part to Cuba's proximity to the United States, where restrictive prohibition on alcohol and other pastimes stood in stark contrast to the island's traditionally relaxed attitude to leisure pursuits. Such tourism became Cuba's third largest source of foreign currency, behind the two dominant industries of sugar and tobacco. Cuban drinks such as the daiquiri and mojito became common in the United States during this time, after Prohibition was repealed.

A combination of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the end of prohibition, and World War II severely dampened Cuba's tourist industry, and it wasn't until the 1950s that numbers began to return to the island in any significant force. During this period, American organized crime came to dominate the leisure and tourist industries, a modus operandi outlined at the infamous Havana Conference of 1946. By the mid-1950s Havana became one of the main markets and the favourite route for the narcotics trade to the United States. Despite this, tourist numbers grew steadily at a rate of 8% a year and Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas".[50][51]

Agriculture

[edit]

The sugar industry was one of the largest industries in the country and had been for centuries.[52][53]

Media

[edit]

Cuba in 1950 was the first country in Latin America to broadcast television. Eight years later the first color television broadcasting was done and it was one of the first countries in the world to do color broadcasts. Television in Cuba grew dramatically in the 1950s and by the late 1950s it had the 9th highest number of TV sets out of any country in the world and the 4th highest number of TV channels out of any country.[54]

Foreign relations

[edit]

Cuba had close relations with the United States during this period.[55]

Cuba was involved in World War 1 committing 10,000 soldiers to be used in Europe[56] along with declaring war being on the side of the Allied Powers.[57] The most meaningful impact on Cuba that World War 1 had was on its sugar trade as much of the world's European supply was cut off with demand exploding along with profits from the industry.[58] Cuba later ended up signing the Treaty of Versailles. Cuba was a member of the League of Nations and later on its successor, the United Nations (UN). During World War II, Cuba declared war on the Axis.[55]

After Fidel Castro came to power, Cuba has remained in the UN.[55]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Between 1906 and 1909, Cuba was under American occupation
  2. ^ "Gerardo Machado y Morales | Cuban President, Military Leader, Autocrat | Britannica".
  3. ^ From Sugar to Revolution: Women's Visions of Haiti, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. 5 February 2013. ISBN 978-1-55458-273-0.
  4. ^ Harris M. Lentz (4 February 2014). Heads of States and Governments Since 1945. Routledge. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-134-26490-2.
  5. ^ Jay Mallin (1 January 1994). Covering Castro: Rise and Decline of Cuba's Communist Dictator. Transaction Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4128-2053-0.
  6. ^ Fitzgibbon, Russell H.; Healey, H. Max (1936). "The Cuban Elections of 1936". American Political Science Review. 30 (4): 724–735. doi:10.2307/1947948. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1947948. S2CID 146976235.
  7. ^ "Eleanor Roosevelt and Fulgencio Batista | Historical Meeting and Correspondence | The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project".
  8. ^ "Neocolonial Republic". Retrieved 25 July 2020.
  9. ^ De Aragón, Uva (2009). Crónicas de la República de Cuba: 1902–1958 (in Spanish). Ediciones Universal. ISBN 9781593881436.
  10. ^ Costa, Octavio Ramón (1994). Imagen y trayectoria del cubano en la historia: La República 1902-1959 (in Spanish). Ediciones Universal. ISBN 9780897296830.
  11. ^ Piney Roche, Grace Giselle (2003). "La República de Cuba, 1902-1959: las grietas de la política". In Elorza, Antonio (ed.). Centenario de la República de Cuba (1902-2002) (in Spanish). Madrid: Editorial Hispano Cubana. ISBN 84-607-7931-9.
  12. ^ Pérez, Louis A. (1991). Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press. p. xvi.
  13. ^ Pérez, Louis A. (1991). Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press. p. 54.
  14. ^ Miller, John; Kenedi, Aaron (2003). Inside Cuba: The History, Culture, and Politics of an Outlaw Nation. New York: Marlowe & Company. pp. 35–36.
  15. ^ "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain". The Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 10 December 1898.
  16. ^ Louis A. Pérez (1998). Cuba Between Empires: 1878–1902. University of Pittsburgh Pre. p. xv. ISBN 978-0-8229-7197-9. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  17. ^ Diaz-Briquets, Sergio; Pérez-López, Jorge F. (2006). Corruption in Cuba: Castro and Beyond. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-292-71321-5. Retrieved 6 September 2009.
  18. ^ "Elections and Events 1902-1911". libraries.ucsd.edu. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019.
  19. ^ Beede, Benjamin, ed. (1994). The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland. p. 134. ISBN 0-8240-5624-8. Retrieved 6 September 2009.
  20. ^ Kevin Grogan, Cuba's Dance of the Millions: Examining the Causes and Consequences of Violent Price Fluctuations in the Sugar Market Between 1919 and 1920; Masters' Thesis accepted at University of Florida, August 2004.
  21. ^ Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., "Dance of the Millions"; Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture (2008).
  22. ^ Terry K Sanderlin, Ed D (24 April 2012). The Last American Rebel in Cuba. AuthorHouse. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4685-9430-0. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  23. ^ a b c Wilber Albert Chaffee; Gary Prevost (1992). Cuba: A Different America. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8476-7694-1. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  24. ^ Philip Dur & Christopher Gilcrease, "U.S. Diplomacy and the Downfall of a Cuban Dictator: Machado in 1933"; Journal of Latin American Studies Vol. 34, No. 2, May 2002; DOI: 10.01/S0022216X02006417; JSTOR.
  25. ^ Argote-Freyre, Frank (2006). Fulgencio Batista. Vol. 1. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-8135-3701-0.
  26. ^ a b Jones, Melanie (2001). Jacqueline West (ed.). South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2002. Routledge. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-85743-121-6. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  27. ^ a b Jaime Suchlicki (2002). Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-57488-436-4. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  28. ^ Domínguez, Jorge I. (June 2009). Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9780674034280.
  29. ^ Domínguez, Jorge I. (June 2009). Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. ?. ISBN 9780674034280.
  30. ^ a b c Frank R. Villafana (31 December 2011). Expansionism: Its Effects on Cuba's Independence. Transaction Publishers. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4128-4656-1. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  31. ^ a b c d Horowitz, Irving Louis, ed. (1998) [1988]. Cuban Communism (6 ed.). Transition Books. p. 662. ISBN 9781412820851.
  32. ^ a b Bethell, Leslie (1993). Cuba. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43682-3.
  33. ^ Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780674044197.
  34. ^ Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. ?. ISBN 9780674044197.
  35. ^ "Batista's Boot". Time. 18 January 1943. Archived from the original on 25 August 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  36. ^ Domínguez, Jorge I. (June 2009). Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780674034280.
  37. ^ Domínguez, Jorge I. (June 2009). Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 110–11. ISBN 9780674034280.
  38. ^ a b Maureen Ihrie; Salvador Oropesa (31 October 2011). World Literature in Spanish: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-313-08083-8. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  39. ^ Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780674044197.
  40. ^ Paul H. Lewis (2006). Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 186. ISBN 0-7425-3739-0. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
  41. ^ a b Valdés, Nelson P. (1971). "Health and Revolution in Cuba". Science & Society. 35 (3): 311–335. ISSN 0036-8237. JSTOR 40401580.
  42. ^ "The Threat of a Good". www3.uakron.edu. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  43. ^ Keck, C. William; Reed, Gail A. (August 2012). "The Curious Case of Cuba". American Journal of Public Health. 102 (8): e13–e22. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300822. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 3464859. PMID 22698011.
  44. ^ Lupan, Alexandru (April 2014). "Poverty in Cuba". Researchgate.
  45. ^ a b Pineo, Ronn (1 March 2019). "Cuban Public Healthcare: A Model of Success for Developing Nations". Journal of Developing Societies. 35 (1): 16–61. doi:10.1177/0169796X19826731. ISSN 0169-796X.
  46. ^ "Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 6, 1960 | JFK Library". www.jfklibrary.org. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  47. ^ Smith & Llorens 1998.
  48. ^ Baklanoff 1998.
  49. ^ Thomas, Hugh (1998). Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom. Da Capo Press. p. 1173. ISBN 978-0-306-80827-2.
  50. ^ a b Figueras, Miguel Alejandro (September 2001). International Tourism and the Formation of Productive Clusters in the Cuban Economy (PDF). Latin American Studies Association, 22nd Congress. Washington, D.C. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2004. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
  51. ^ History of Cuba written and compiled by J.A. Sierra
  52. ^ Perez-Lopez, Jorge (1991). The Economics of Cuban Sugar. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822976714.
  53. ^ Kapcia, Antoni (2022). Historical Dictionary of Cuba. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 311. ISBN 9781442264557 – via Google Books.
  54. ^ Pérez Jr., Louis A. (2012). On Becoming Cuban: Identity, Nationality, and Culture. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 333 & 334. ISBN 9781469601410 – via Google Books.
  55. ^ a b c Miguel-Steams, Teresa M. (2017). "CUBA IN THE INTERNATIONAL ARENA" (PDF). International Journal of Legal Information. 45 (2). Retrieved 22 July 2024 – via The University of Arizona: James E. Rogers College of Law.
  56. ^ Miguel-Stearns, Teresa M. (2017). "Cuba in the International Arena Section" (PDF). Cuba in the International Arena Section. 45 (2) – via The University of Arizona: James E. Rogers College of Law. Two elections later, in 1917, U.S. Marines returned to Cuba to quell a revolution and restore the President. That same year, Cuba, following the United States, declared war on Germany and committed 10,000 men to the disposal of the U.S. military in Europe.
  57. ^ "Participants in World War I". United States World War One Centennial Commission. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  58. ^ Ferrer, Ada (2022). "BOOM, CRASH, AWAKE". Cuba: An American History. Scribner. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-5011-5456-0. Retrieved 22 July 2024 – via Google Books.

Works cited

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_Cuba_(1902–1959)&oldid=1260253045"