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Buangkok MRT station

Coordinates: 01°22′59″N 103°53′35″E / 1.38306°N 103.89306°E / 1.38306; 103.89306
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 NE15 
Buangkok
万国
புவாங்கோக்
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station
The entrance of Buangkok station is characterized by a distinctive, large, white Teflon sheet as its canopy. A series of steps lead up to the entrance.
Exit A of Buangkok station
General information
Location10 Sengkang Central
Singapore 545061[1]
Coordinates01°22′59″N 103°53′35″E / 1.38306°N 103.89306°E / 1.38306; 103.89306
Operated bySBS Transit Ltd (ComfortDelGro Corporation)
Line(s)
  North East Line
Platforms2 (1 island platform)
Tracks2
ConnectionsBus, taxi
Construction
Structure typeUnderground
Platform levels1
AccessibleYes
History
Opened15 January 2006; 18 years ago (2006-01-15)
ElectrifiedYes
Passengers
June 202419,010 per day[2]
Services
Preceding station Mass Rapid Transit Following station
Hougang
towards HarbourFront
 North East Line Sengkang
towards Punggol
Location
A map of the Singapore rail system, with a colour for each line and a red dot highlighting the location of Buangkok station in northeast Singapore.
A map of the Singapore rail system, with a colour for each line and a red dot highlighting the location of Buangkok station in northeast Singapore.
Buangkok
Buangkok station in Singapore

Buangkok MRT station is an underground Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station on the North East Line (NEL) in Singapore. The station is near the intersection of Sengkang Central with Compassvale Bow, and serves the residential neighbourhood of Buangkok. It is also planned to serve a future bus interchange and Sengkang Grand Residencies, an integrated commercial-and-residential development. The station is operated by SBS Transit.

The station was first announced in March 1996 and construction began the following April. Buangkok was one of two stations on the NEL that remained closed when the line began operations on 20 June 2003, upsetting the area's residents. Despite lobbying by grass-roots leaders, the Government of Singapore supported SBS Transit's decision and said the station would have been a white elephant if it had opened.

In August 2005, during a visit by youth minister Vivian Balakrishnan visit to Punggol South, eight white cardboard elephants were put up in protest, and a grass-roots leader was sternly warned after a police investigation into the incident. After the Land Transport Authority re-evaluated the station's feasibility, Buangkok station opened on 15 January 2006.

Buangkok station is a designated Civil Defence shelter and is wheelchair accessible. White Teflon sheets cover the station's two entrances. Water, Nature & Contemporary – an Art-in-Transit artwork by Vincent Leow – is displayed at the station.

History

[edit]

Construction

[edit]
The island platform of Buangkok station featuring a line map and benches, with the station artwork adorned above the platform screen doors. At the centre of the image, escalators, and stairs lead to the upper level of the concourse.
Station platforms

The North East Line (NEL) project, which was first proposed in 1984,[3] received approval from the Government of Singapore in January 1996.[4] Buangkok station was one of sixteen NEL stations announced the communications minister Mah Bow Tan announced that March.[5]

The contract for the construction of Sengkang and Buangkok stations was awarded to a joint venture between Sato Kogyo and Hock Lian Seng Engineering on 26 April 1997.[6][7] The S$166.4 million (US$112.1 million) contract included the construction of 1.6 km (0.99 mi) of connecting tunnels between the stations and 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) of reception tunnels to Sengkang Depot.[6]

Buangkok station was constructed in a forested area that was proposed to be redeveloped into a new town.[8] After the forest was cleared and the vacated warehouses around the site were demolished, the site was excavated to a depth of up to 20 m (66 ft), and work on the station then proceeded. Once construction was complete, new roads connected the station to the road system.[9]

Delay in opening

[edit]

On 17 June 2003, a few days before the opening of the NEL, its operator SBS Transit announced two stations on the line – Woodleigh and Buangkok – would not open with the other stations because of the lack of development in their areas.[10] Housing demand had declined due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the economic downturn following the September 11 attacks. Consequently, the Housing and Development Board (HDB) had reduced its development plans in the north-east of Singapore.[11] SBS Transit said keeping the stations closed would reduce annual operating costs by S$2-to-3 million,[10] and that the station would need a daily ridership of 5,000 for it to be commercially viable.[12] The company apologised for the "late notice", saying the decision was only made in May when the NEL fare structure was approved, that the closure was not an "easy decision" and that it had deliberated on the matter for months.[13]

Residents around the station were upset by the sudden decision; grass-roots leaders had previously assured them the station would open.[14][15] Charles Chong, the Member of Parliament for Pasir Ris–Punggol, echoed the residents' sentiments.[12] A poll of residents living within 700 m (2,300 ft) of the station showed they were willing to walk to the station,[16] contrary to SBS Transit's justification few commuters would be willing to walk more than 400 metres (1,300 ft) to a station.[13] Residents polled also said it would be more convenient for them to use Buangkok station than the adjacent stations at Sengkang and Hougang. According to SBS Transit, the poll, which was launched by Chong and conducted with academics from the National University of Singapore (NUS), was flawed and did not take into account the frequency of commuters' use.[16]

In July 2003, the transport minister Yeo Cheow Tong denied the station was a "white elephant",[17] despite some residents calling it such.[18][note 1] In August, the government acknowledged SBS Transit had made mistakes in delaying the announcement but supported the company's decision and rationale due to low passenger demand in the area.[19] At the official opening ceremony of the NEL on 28 August 2003, deputy prime minister Lee Hsien Loong said Buangkok station would open in 2006 after more flats were built in the area. In the meantime, the government provided more feeder bus services for residents in the area.[15][20] In response to residents' plans to gift SBS Transit a white-elephant statue, Lee said at the ceremony Buangkok station would be a "bigger white elephant" if the station was to serve no passengers after its opening.[15]

White elephant incident

[edit]

On 27 July 2005, to address SBS Transit's doubts, Chong and other grass-roots leaders launched another survey, interviewing 495 residents near Punggol station. The survey found 65% of the respondents who lived within 400 m (1,300 ft) of the station walked there seven times a week.[21][22] SBS Transit was unconvinced by the polls, saying there needed to be enough people who would walk to Buangkok station.[22] Transport Minister Yeo Cheow Tong said the Land Transport Authority (LTA) would re-evaluate the distance criteria and expand the catchment radius from 400 m (1,300 ft) to 500 m (1,600 ft) because there were about 2,300 homes within 500 m (1,600 ft) of Buangkok station.[23]

When youth minister Vivian Balakrishnan was on his way to Punggol South on 28 August, he saw eight white, cardboard elephants had been erected along the road towards Buangkok station.[24] This prompted the minister to visit the unopened station. In a discussion with the residents, he said the station's opening would be a "matter of time" following the construction of the 2,000 residential units. Dissatisfaction with the station's continued closure increased after the announcement of transport-fare rises.[25] After the minister's visit, the elephant cut-outs were removed.[26]

On 1 September, following a complaint, the police launched an investigation into the cut-outs under the Public Entertainment and Meetings Act. Residents and community leaders expressed shock at the investigation, saying there was no ill intent and that the cut-outs were a creative way to bring the issue to the minister.[27] In a letter to The Straits Times, sociologist Chua Beng Huat commented the investigation was "paranoid"; he criticized the press for treating what he saw as a municipal-level issue as a "national issue" due to Singapore's single-tier government.[28][29] On 6 October, the police closed the investigation without pressing charges, though they sternly warned one veteran grass-roots leader for an infringement of the Act.[30][31] Deputy Prime Minister Wong Kan Seng said the investigation was initiated because they could not selectively enforce legislation otherwise the law would become "the real white elephant".[32] Following the white-elephant incident, students from Raffles Girls' School (RGS) had formed a group called "Project White Elephant" that was aimed at encouraging youth to take an active role in politics. Tee-shirts bearing the words "Save the White Elephants" were created and sold to raise funds for a charity, Youth Guidance.[33]

Station opening

[edit]

Following the incident, Yeo asked the LTA to re-examine whether there was adequate passenger demand to justify the station's opening.[34][35] In September 2005, Yeo said the expected opening date had been further postponed to 2008 following LTA's projections for the housing development plans for the area; only 500 residential units had been completed within 400 metres (1,300 ft) of the station. The LTA continued to review the feasibility of opening the station sooner.[36] On 11 November 2005, Yeo announced Buangkok station would open the following January after SBS Transit agreed to the opening due to reduced losses from its rail operations. Yeo denied pressuring the operator to open the station and said the opening was due to "tireless appeals" by Chong.[37][38] In December, the opening date was scheduled for 15 January.[39][40] Before the opening, SBS Transit staff tested the station's equipment and had the station cleaned.[41]

An image of a white elephant surrounded by the words "Save the white elephants" in a black backdrop
"Save the White Elephants" T-shirt design by students from Raffles Girls' School.

Punggol South grass-roots leaders invited RGS students to sell their remaining "Save the White Elephants" tee-shirts at the carnival for the station's opening event.[39][33] During the preparations for the carnival, the police sent an advisory to the students and carnival organisers saying a fund-raising permit was required for them to sell the shirts, and warning the organisers "wearing the T-shirts en masse may be misconstrued by some as an offence under the Miscellaneous Offences (Public & Order & Nuisance) (Assemblies & Processions) Rules". The police said they would make an exception to process the fund-raising permit in time for the event.[33] No-one, including the girls selling them, wore the shirts at the station's opening, and the celebrations proceeded without issues.[42] Wong later apologised for the police's overreaction to the incident.[43]

The station opened as scheduled "with much fanfare", beginning with a walk-a-jog to the station that was led by the event's guest-of-honour, the defence minister Teo Chee Hean; this was followed by a ribbon-cutting ceremony. Station operations began at 12:55 pm.[42][44] After its opening, the station averaged only 1,386 daily riders instead of the expected 6,000.[45] Many residents still travelled to the adjacent Sengkang and Hougang stations due to the retail and commercial amenities there.[46] SBS Transit, after saying it was still "too early to draw a conclusion" about ridership,[45] remained committed to keeping the station open to serve future developments nearby.[46]

Details

[edit]
The concourse level of the station with the passenger service centre on the left. People are walking through the fare gates, some tapping their cards to enter or exit.
Concourse level of the station

Buangkok station, which has the station code of NE15, serves the North East Line (NEL) of the Singapore Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) and is located between Hougang and Sengkang stations.[47] Buangkok station is operated by SBS Transit and runs daily from about 5:45 a.m. to 12:25 a.m.[48][49] Train frequencies vary from 2.5 to 5 minutes.[50]

Buangkok station is located in Sengkang along the road of Sengkang Central near the junction with Compassvale Bow.[51][52] The station has two entrances that serving the surrounding HDB flats, and Palm View Primary School and North Vista Primary School.[52] The station serves Sengkang Grand Residencies, an integrated commercial-and-residential development that includes a retail mall and Buangkok Bus Interchange.[53][54][55] The new bus interchange is expected to be opened on 1 December 2024.[56]

Altoon + Porter Architects and 3HP Architects designed the station.[57] Unlike other NEL stations, the design of the station entrances does not include glass; white Teflon sheets are supported by metal frames cover the entrances,[58] resembling a circus tent.[59] Like all other NEL stations, the platforms are wheelchair accessible. A tactile system, consisting of tiles with rounded-or-elongated raised studs,[60] guides visually impaired commuters through the station.[61] Dedicated tactile routes connect the station entrances to the platforms.[52][62]

Buangkok station is designated as a Civil Defence (CD) shelter;[63][64] it is designed to accommodate at least 7,500 people, and to withstand airstrikes and chemical attacks. Equipment essential for the operations in the CD shelter is mounted on shock absorbers to prevent damage during a bombing. When the electrical supply to the shelter is disrupted, backup generators keep operations going.[65] The shelter has dedicated, built-in, decontamination chambers and dry toilets with collection bins that will send human waste out of the shelter.[66]

Artwork

[edit]
A colourful strip of the artwork displayed across the open stair voids that link the concourse level to the platform
Station artwork

The artwork Water, Nature & Contemporary by Vincent Leow is displayed at Buangkok station as part of the Art-in-Transit programme, a showcase of public artworks on the MRT network.[67] The artwork consists of two image stripes that are displayed across the staircase voids of the station concourse.[59] These images are embellished with dots, graphic motifs, and bands, providing a contrast with black-and-white photographs.[67][68] Through the colorful embellishments, Leow intended to capture commuters' attention while creating "a bright and happy ambience" through "the explosion of colours".[68] Also incorporated in the artwork are auspicious symbols, including depictions of fishes and red-or-tangerine clouds. The clouds are inspired by traditional Chinese art and street theatre, which are familiar to many Singaporeans.[69]

Leow, who is known for his paintings and sculptures, saw "an opportunity to experiment" and decided to "push his artistic boundaries" by fusing art and photography in this commission.[59] The work's 80 vitreous enamel panels were silkscreened with black-and-white photographs that are reminiscent of cinematic stills and film strips. These photographs depict people, activities, and natural landscapes in Singapore. They were retrieved from the National Archives of Singapore and curated by Leow to reflect the lifestyle of old Buangkok and rural Singapore, and for commuters to connect the past with the future.[59] The images function as a commentary on life in Singapore; for example, Leow intended a photograph of the soldier on parade to remind Singaporean men of National Service and their "rite of passage into adulthood".[68] The enlarged photographs resulted in an abstract appearance; when observed from a distance, the images come into clear focus.[59]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ A white elephant is an idiom for impractical possessions that are expensive to maintain but cannot be disposed of

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Buangkok MRT Station (NE15)". OneMap. Singapore Land Authority. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
  2. ^ "Land Transport DataMall". DataMall. Land Transport Authority. Archived from the original on 21 August 2020. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
  3. ^ "Study on Future North-East Line". Business Times. Singapore Press Holdings. 26 September 1984. Archived from the original on 23 August 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021 – via NewspaperSG.
  4. ^ "Immediate Start for North-East Line". The Straits Times. 20 January 1996. p. 1. Archived from the original on 10 December 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
  5. ^ Leong, Chan Teik (5 March 1996). "16 MRT Stations for 20-Km North-East Line". The Straits Times. p. 1.
  6. ^ a b "Contracts Awarded for Four NE-Line MRT Stations". The Straits Times. 27 April 1997. p. 37. Retrieved 26 August 2022 – via NewspaperSG.
  7. ^ "Projects". hlsgroup.com.sg. Archived from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  8. ^ Leong 2003, p. 183.
  9. ^ Leong 2003, p. 184.
  10. ^ a b Lim, Kenneth (18 June 2003). "Two of 16 NEL Stations Won't Open on Debut". The Business Times. p. 2.
  11. ^ Chow, Clarice; Chia, Jean; Zhan, Mina (2018). Integrating Land Use & Mobility: Supporting Sustainable Growth (PDF). Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities. p. 57. ISBN 978-981-11-7091-1.
  12. ^ a b Tan, Christopher (10 July 2003). "Residents Pile on Pressure to Open Buangkok MRT" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  13. ^ a b Lim, Vincent (17 July 2003). "SBS Explains Buangkok Decision" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  14. ^ Loh, Sherwin (18 June 2003). "Buangkok MRT Delay Frustrates Commuters" (PDF). The Straits Times. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  15. ^ a b c Goh, Chin Lian (29 August 2003). "Buangkok Station May Open in Three Years" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  16. ^ a b Tan, Christopher (23 July 2003). "People Willing to Walk to Buangkok MRT, Says Survey" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  17. ^ "Lesson from Buangkok station: Give early warning" (PDF). The Straits Times. 20 July 2003. p. 32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2024. Retrieved 12 August 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  18. ^ Tan, Christopher (10 August 2003). "NEL: Whose white elephant will it be?" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 34. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2024. Retrieved 12 August 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  19. ^ Goh, Chin Lian (15 August 2003). "SBS Transit 'Made Mistakes' over Buangkok Station" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  20. ^ "Speech By Deputy Prime Minister Mr Lee Hsien Loong At The Official Opening Of The North East Line And Sengkang LRT System on 28 August 2003". Ministry of Transport. Archived from the original on 10 September 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
  21. ^ Loo, Serene; Leow, Joanne (27 July 2005). "Residents Willing to Walk over 400 Metres to Buangkok Station: Survey". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 1 December 2005.
  22. ^ a b Goh, Chin Lian (28 July 2005). "Buangkok MRT: New Poll Fails to Move SBS" (PDF). p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  23. ^ Goh, Chin Lian (5 August 2004). "Buangkok: Distance Issue May Be Reviewed" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
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  25. ^ Majid, Hasnita (28 August 2005). "Residents Bring up 'White Elephant' Buangkok MRT During Minister's Visit". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 9 January 2006.
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  27. ^ Low, Aaron (2 September 2005). "Police Probe Complaint on 'White Elephants'" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  28. ^ Chong, Terence (2006). "Singapore: Globalizing on Its Own Terms". Southeast Asian Affairs. 2006 (1): 274. ISSN 1793-9135.
  29. ^ Chua, Beng Huat. "White-Elephant Saga Isn't a National Issue" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
  30. ^ "Conclusion of Police's Investigations into the White Elephants Placards". Singapore Police Force. 6 October 2005. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
  31. ^ Ng, Julia (6 October 2005). "Stern Police Warning for Offender Who Planted "White Elephants" at Buangkok MRT". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  32. ^ Chua, Val (7 October 2005). "Elephant Probe Ends with Slap on the Wrist". Today. p. 2. Retrieved 2 April 2024 – via NewspaperSG.
  33. ^ a b c "Teens' White Elephant T-Shirt Venture Gets Police Attention". Today. 14 January 2006. Archived from the original on 16 January 2006.
  34. ^ "Buangkok Station: Yeo Cheow Tong Wants LTA Reply Within 'A Month or So'" (PDF). The Straits Times. 30 August 2005. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  35. ^ Popatlal, Asha (29 August 2005). "LTA to Complete Study on Buangkok Station in 1–2 Months: Yeo". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 1 December 2005. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  36. ^ Kwek, Ken (20 September 2005). "LTA Needs a Few Months for Buangkok Review" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 28 June 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  37. ^ Goh, Chin Lian (12 November 2005). "It's Confirmed: Buangkok Station Opens in Jan" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  38. ^ "Buangkok MRT Station to Open by mid-January 2006". Channel NewsAsia. 11 November 2005. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  39. ^ a b Tan, Christopher (31 December 2005). "Buangkok Station Opens on Jan 15" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  40. ^ Zahara, Rita (29 December 2005). "Buangkok MRT Station to Open on January 15". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 1 January 2006. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  41. ^ Majid, Hasnita (9 January 2006). "Preparations Underway at Buangkok MRT Station for Official Opening". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 11 January 2006. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  42. ^ a b Koo, Edwin; Tan, Theresa (16 January 2006). "All Aboard at 'White Elephant' Station" (PDF). The Straits Times. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024 – via Nexis Uni.
  43. ^ Ng, Julia (21 January 2006). "Police Overreacted to White Elephant T-Shirt Incident: DPM Wong". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.
  44. ^ "Buangkok NEL Station Commences Revenue Service Amid Great Fanfare". SBS Transit. 15 January 2006. Archived from the original on 29 August 2019. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
  45. ^ a b Goh, Chin Lian (24 January 2006). "Poor Buangkok MRT Ridership Since Opening". The Straits Times. p. H4.
  46. ^ a b Fong, Samantha; Huang, Esther; Wong, Cheric (23 February 2006). "Aiyoh, So Creepy at Night". The New Paper. p. 6.
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  50. ^ "Transport Tools – MRT/LRT". Land Transport Authority. 6 May 2020. Archived from the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  51. ^ "Buangkok MRT Station (NE15)". OneMap. Singapore Land Authority. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  52. ^ a b c "Train Service Information". SBSTransit. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  53. ^ "Sengkang Grand Residences Sees 216 Units Sold on Launch Weekend". The Straits Times. 3 November 2019. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  54. ^ "Sengkang Grand Residences Apartments to Launch at Prices Starting from $798,000". The Straits Times. 23 October 2019. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  55. ^ "Award of tender for the commercial and residential site at Sengkang Central". Urban Redevelopment Authority. 15 March 2024. Archived from the original on 2 April 2024. Retrieved 2 April 2024.
  56. ^ "New Buangkok Bus Interchange to Start Operations on 1 December 2024". Land Transport Authority. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
  57. ^ "Transit Oriented Design". Altoon. Archived from the original on 12 April 2024. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  58. ^ "Local Flavour for Stops Along N-E Line". The Straits Times. 7 August 2002. p. 8.
  59. ^ a b c d e Tan 2003, p. 150.
  60. ^ "Tactile Guiding System: Studs and Strips to Guide Your Way". Land Transport Authority. 30 July 2021. Archived from the original on 11 September 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  61. ^ Leong 2003, p. 248.
  62. ^ Leong 2003, p. 249.
  63. ^ "Chemical Attack? Clean-Up At N-E Line". The Straits Times. 14 February 2003.
  64. ^ "List of Public CD Shelters as of 31 Dec 2019" (PDF). Singapore Civil Defence Force. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  65. ^ Leong 2003, p. 253.
  66. ^ "Fancy That, Dry Toilets Grab Most Interest". The Straits Times. 16 February 2003. p. 21.
  67. ^ a b "Art in Transit". Land Transport Authority. 9 November 2022. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  68. ^ a b c Tan 2003, p. 151.
  69. ^ Tan 2003, p. 152.

Bibliography

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