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Bhutan–China relations

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Bhutan–China relations
Map indicating locations of China and Bhutan

China
Bhutan

Bhutan-China relations refer to the international relationship between the Kingdom of Bhutan and the People's Republic of China. As of present, Bhutan and China do not share an official diplomatic relationship with one another.[1]

Historically, Bhutan has followed a path of isolationism and non-alignment extending from the Cold War era to the present day. Bhutan's lack of formal diplomatic relations extend far beyond China; Bhutan does not have an official diplomatic relationship with any of the other four permanent member states of the United Nations Security Council.[2]

Geographically, Bhutan is sandwiched between the two neighbouring states of India to the south and China to the north and northeast. The Bhutan-China border runs approximately 477 km across very mountainous Himalayan terrain, connecting northern regions of Bhutan on the south of the border with the Tibet Autonomous Region of China north of the border.[3] The Bhutan-China border is porous and poorly demarcated, and has been a source of long running tension between the two states.[4] Territorial disputes with Bhutan have been a source of potential conflict. Since 1984, the two governments have conducted regular talks on border and security issues to reduce tensions.[5][6]

Background

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Bhutan has long had strong cultural, historical, religious, and economic connections to Tibet.[7] Relations with Tibet were strained when China took over Tibet in the 1950s. Unlike Tibet, Bhutan had no history of being under the suzerainty of China but fell under British suzerainty during the British Raj following the Treaty of Punakha in 1910.[7]

Bhutan's border with Tibet has never been officially demarcated. The territorial claim was maintained by the People's Republic of China after the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in the Chinese Civil War.[citation needed] With the increase in soldiers on the Chinese side of the Sino-Bhutanese border after the 17-point agreement between the Tibetan government and the central government of the PRC, Bhutan withdrew its representative from Lhasa.[7][8][9]

The 1959 Tibetan uprising and the 14th Dalai Lama's arrival in neighboring India made the security of Bhutan's border with China a necessity for Bhutan. An estimated 6,000 Tibetans fled to Bhutan and were granted asylum, although Bhutan subsequently closed its northern border with China, fearing more refugees.[7][10]

Bhutan–China relations are constrained also by Bhutan's close relationship with India.[11] Nonetheless, relations with China have improved following China's Belt and Road Initiative.[12]: 215  Generally, Bhutan seeks balance with its larger neighbors China and India in order to avoid dependency on either country.[12]: 215 

History

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Bhutan has historical ties to Tibet through their culture, history, religion, and economy.[7] However, their relationship became tense after Bhutan supported the British Empire and the British invasion of Tibet. With the signing of an agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Tibetan locals, and the deployment of troops on the border between China and Bhutan, Bhutan withdrew its representatives in the People's Republic of China from Lhasa.[13][14] After the 1959 Tibetan riots and the arrival of the Dalai Lama in neighbouring India, some 6,000 Tibetans fled to Bhutan and were granted asylum. Bhutan closed its border with China, afraid that there would be more refugees.[15]

Boundary issues

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Further information: Bhutan–China border and Territorial disputes between Bhutan and China [zh]
Map of Bhutan showing border with China as of 2010

With the entry of the People's Liberation Army into Tibet, some Tibetan settlements in western Tibet, formerly controlled by the Bhutanese government, came under the control of the People's Republic of China. While some sources believe that the Bhutan-China border was settled in a secret agreement during 1961, neither country has ever publicly acknowledged such an agreement.[16] In the 1980s, Bhutan relinquished its claim to a 154-square-mile area called Kula Khari on its northern border with China.[5] In 1998, the two countries signed a peace and tranquility agreement, although border disputes remain.[16] A 2002 official statement by the King of Bhutan to the National Assembly, specifies that there are still four disputed areas between Bhutan and China.[17]

The two countries signed a memorandum of understanding in 2022 to begin the process of settling the border.[18]: 113  In 2023, Bhutanese foreign minister Tandi Dorji met with Chinese foreign minister Wang Yi and Chinese Vice President Han Zheng where both sides indicated hopes to resolve the border dispute and develop formal ties.[19]

Mitigation

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In 1974, Bhutan invited Ma Muming, chargé d'affaires of the Chinese Embassy in India, to attend the coronation of the fourth Bhutanese King Jigme Singye Wangchuck. In 1983, Chinese Foreign Minister Wu Xueqian and Bhutanese Foreign Minister Dawa Tsering held talks in New York on establishing bilateral relations. In 1984, China and Bhutan began direct negotiations on the border dispute.[17][20]

In 1998, China and Bhutan signed an Agreement to Maintain Peace and Tranquility on the Bhutan-China border.[20][1] The two sides also proposed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.[17][21][20][22] However, China later built roads in the territory claimed by Bhutan, and China was accused of violating the agreement and provoking tension.[5] In 2024, The New York Times reported that, according to satellite imagery, China had constructed villages inside of disputed territory within Bhutan.[23] Chinese individuals, called "border guardians," received annual subsidies to relocate to newly built villages and paid to conduct border patrols.[23] At least 22 Chinese villages and settlements have been constructed inside of disputed territory.[24]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Kaul, Nitasha (28 April 2022). "Beyond India and China: Bhutan as a Small State in International Relations". International Relations of the Asia-Pacific. 22 (2): 297–337. doi:10.1093/irap/lcab010. ISSN 1470-482X.
  2. ^ "China and Bhutan aim to resolve a long-running border dispute". The Economist. 2 November 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
  3. ^ "CIA - The World Factbook -- Bhutan". 12 June 2007. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
  4. ^ McCarthy, Simone; Gan, Nectar (5 November 2024). "China is building new villages on its remote Himalayan border. Some appear to have crossed the line". CNN. Retrieved 5 November 2024.
  5. ^ a b c Barnett, Robert (7 May 2021). "China Is Building Entire Villages in Another Country's Territory". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
  6. ^ Ethirajan, Anbarasan (27 April 2023). "Bhutan wants a border deal with China: Will India accept?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  7. ^ a b c d e Savada, Andrea Matles (September 1991). Nepal, and Bhutan : country studies. Library of Congress. pp. 330–333. ISBN 0844407771. Retrieved 30 May 2008. (source can also be found at the Library of Congress website: [1])
  8. ^ Balaji, Mohan (12 January 2008). "In Bhutan, China and India collide". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  9. ^ M Shamsur Rabb Khan (8 April 2008). "Elections in the Himalayan Kingdom: New Dawn of India-Bhutan Relations". Institute of Peace & Conflict Studies. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
  10. ^ Bhutan: a land frozen in time Archived 11 November 2010 at archive.today (9 February 1998). BBC. Accessed May 30, 2008.
  11. ^ Kelegama, Saman (2016). "China as a Balancer in South Asia". The New Great Game: China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 203. doi:10.1515/9780804797641-013. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
  12. ^ a b Alfred, Gerstl (2023). "China in its Immediate Neighborhood". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. pp. 205–217. doi:10.4324/9781003350064-21. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
  13. ^ Balaji, Mohan (12 January 2008). "In Bhutan, China and India collide". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  14. ^ M Shamsur Rabb Khan (8 April 2008). "Elections in the Himalayan Kingdom: New Dawn of India-Bhutan Relations". Institute of Peace & Conflict Studies. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
  15. ^ "Bhutan: a land frozen in time". Archived from the original on 11 November 2010.
  16. ^ a b Singh, Swaran (2016). "China Engages Its Southwest Frontier". The new great game : China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
  17. ^ a b c "Bhutan-China relations". BhutanNewsOnline.com. Archived from the original on 24 October 2002. Retrieved 6 July 2014.(in English)
  18. ^ Garlick, Jeremy (2024). Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-25231-8.
  19. ^ "China and Bhutan aim to resolve a long-running border dispute". The Economist. 29 March 2024. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  20. ^ a b c Balaji, Mohan (12 January 2008). "In Bhutan, China and India collide". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  21. ^ India and the upcoming Druk democracy Archived 2008-01-13 at the Wayback Machine (May 2007). HimalMag.com. Accessed May 30, 2008.
  22. ^ Bhutan Gazette (7 June 2007). BhutanGazette. They were accessed on May 30, 2008.
  23. ^ a b Xiao, Muyi; Chang, Agnes (10 August 2024). "China's Great Wall of Villages". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 10 August 2024. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
  24. ^ "Forceful Diplomacy: China's Cross-Border Villages in Bhutan". Turquoise Roof. 15 October 2024. Retrieved 18 October 2024.

Further reading

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