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Puranas

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Purana (Sanskrit: पुराण purāṇa), meaning "belonging to ancient or olden times", is the name of an ancient Indian genre (or a group of related genres) of Hindu or Jain literature (as distinct from oral tradition). They primarily are post-Vedic texts containing a narrative of the history of the Universe, from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy and geography.[1]

Puranas are called the Friendly Treatises or Suhrit-Sammitas, and are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another. Vyasa Rishi is considered to be the compiler of the Puranas.[2]

An early reference to Purana in its present sense can be traced to the Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2), in which the sage Narada refers to itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ. Thus the Chandogya Upanishad ascribes to the Puranas, together with Itihas, the status of a fifth Veda, or Panchama Veda.

There are many texts designated as 'Purana'. The most important are:

  • Mahāpurāṇas and Upapurāṇas, the main Puranic corpus
  • Sthala Purāṇas, scriptures usually extolling the virtues of a certain Hindu temple. They narrate stories of the temple's creation and spiritual history.
  • Kula Purāṇas - Scriptures that deal with the origin and legends of a particular caste.

The Mahāpurāṇas are dated philologically to between roughly the 3rd and the 12th centuries,[3] the bulk of the texts likely originating in the Gupta period (320-500 CE), with incremental additions well into medieval times.[4] According to Hindu tradition, the Puranas were composed by Vyasa at the end of Dvapara Yuga.

In the opinion of Gavin Flood[4], the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults:

Although these texts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they nevertheless each present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen as random collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted expositions and presentations of worldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmins to propagate a particular vision, whether it be focused on Viṣṇu, Śiva, or Devī, or, indeed, any number of deities.

Classification and scope

The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. According to Matysa Purana, [5] they are said to narrate five subjects, called Pancha Lakshana pañcalakṣaṇa ("five distinguishing marks"):

  1. Sarga - The creation of the universe.
  2. Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
  3. Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.
  4. Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.
  5. Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.

Manvantras is the period of Manu's rule consisting of 71 celestial Yugas or 308,448,000 years. Swami Sivananda

Most Mahapuranas and Upapuranas deal with these subject matters, although the bulk of their text consists of historical and religious narratives. Some scholars have suggested that these 'distinguishing marks' are shared by other traditional religious scriptures of the world (e.g. the Bible).[6] A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva, Vishnu or Krishna, Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient. Most use an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts in their narration, from Bhakti to Samkhya.

The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a travelling brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti perspective).

Mahapuranas

Traditionally it is said that there are 18 Mahapuranas and 18 Upapuranas. Each Mahapurana lists eighteen canonical puranas, but the contents of each list vary reflecting differences in time and place. Combining the lists, Dimmitt and van Buitenen [7] have collated twenty names:

The Goddess Ambika or Durga Leading the Eight Matrikas in Battle Against the Demon Raktabija, Folio from Devi Mahatmya, Markandeya Purana.
  1. Agni (15,400 verses)
  2. Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas.[8] It is concerned with Vishnu Bhakti, telling of the exploits and deeds of Vishnu's Avataras. Its tenth canto (its longest) narrates the deeds of Krishna and, probably for the first time in Sanskrit, tells of his exploits as a child, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.[9]
  3. Bhavishya (14,500 verses)
  4. Brahma (24,000 verses)
  5. Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer)
  6. Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)
  7. Garuda (19,000 verses)
  8. Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered itihāsa)
  9. Kurma (17,000 verses)
  10. Linga (11,000 verses)
  11. Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
  12. Matsya (14,000 verses)
  13. Narada (25,000 verses)
  14. Padma (55,000 verses)
  15. Shiva (24,000 verses)
  16. Skanda (81,100 verses), probably the longest of all, containing parables, legends and stories, with multiple versions and recensions. Many untraced quotes from a Purana are conveniently attributed to this Purana.[10]
  17. Vamana (10,000 verses)
  18. Varaha (10,000 verses)
  19. Vayu (24,000 verses)
  20. Vishnu (23,000 verses)

Classification by Trimurti

The Mahapuranas are also classified by the three aspects of Trimurti,

[11]

Classification by guna

A reference from the Puranas themselves classifies the various Puranic texts in accordance with the three gunas (qualities of material nature) -- goodness, passion and ignorance. Of the Mahapuranas it is said that six are more effective for readers in the guna of goodness, six for those in the guna of passion, and six to people in the guna of ignorance. According to the Padma Purana,[12] these are the Mahapuranas and their corresponding qualities:

An illustration of Varaha avatar based on the Bhagavata Purana

Authorship, name and chronology

Traditionally, the Puranas are said to have been composed by the sage Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata epic. Vyasa in Sanskrit means 'Divider,' and some scholars therefore take this simply as a term meaning 'Editor'.[13] The texts, these scholars say, were probably written all over India and are being rewritten and reedited to the present day all over the world.

The term purana, which means "belonging to ancient times" or "an ancient tale or legend", appears in the Vedas (e.g. Atharvaveda 11.7.24[14] [15]). And the term itihasa purana, "account of ancient times", occurs in the Chandogya Upanishad[16], Nirukta[17], Maitrayana Brahmana Upanisad[18] and the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, where the text thus referred to is considered the "fifth Veda."[19]

The specific corpus of the Mahapuranas, as opposed to generic purana "ancient tale", is sometimes estimated by Western scholars to date to the Early Middle Ages, or to roughly between the fifth and tenth centuries, but to contain older material; according to Pargiter, an "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas.[14]

Puranic genealogies

The Puranas also lay emphasis on keeping a record of genealogies. Thus the Vayu Purana says: "As seen by good people in the ancient times the suta's duty was to preserve the genealogies of gods, rsis and glorious kings and the traditions of great men." (Vayu P. 1. 31-2)

The Puranic genealogies add up to fantastic time depths see e.g. F.E. Pargiter (1922)[14] and Pargiter (1979) [20] [21] Pargiter has argued that in the Puranas the Puranic Krta Yuga[22] "ended with the destruction of the Haihayas [by Rama Jamadagnya]; the Treta began approximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasarathi's destruction of the Raksasas; and the Dvapara began with his reinstatement at Ayodhya and ended with the Bharata battle".[23] The Puranas themselves state that these lists are incomplete.[14] [24] In Arrian's Indica, Megasthenes is quoted as stating that the Indians counted from Shiva (Dionysos) to Chandragupta Maurya (Sandracottus) "a hundred and fifty-three kings over six thousand and forty-three years."[25] The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (4.6.), ca. 8th century BCE, mentions 57 links in the Guru-Parampara ("succession of teachers"). This would mean that this Guru-Parampara would go back about 1400 years, although the accuracy of this list is disputed.[26] The list of kings in Kalhana's Rajatarangini goes back to the 19th century BCE.[27]

The Puranic genealogies indicate that Manu Vaivasvata lived 95 generations before the Bharata War.[28]

Upapuranas

Upapuranas are eighteen in number, namely: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa.[29] The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are sectarian Upapuranas devoted to Ganesha.[30] [31]

Most of these have not been critically edited yet and are available mostly through devotional publications, in multiple versions and recensions.

The Devi-Bhagavata Purana extols the virtues of the goddess Durga as the supreme being. It has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Mārkandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi worshipers.[32]

Other Hindu Puranas

Sthala Puranas

This corpus of texts narrates the virtues and stories connected with a certain temple or shrine (the word 'Sthala' means 'Place' in Sanskrit). There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. Most claim to have a Sanskrit origin, and some of the Sanskrit versions also appear in a Mahapurana or an Upapurana. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean Shulman.[33]

Kula Puranas

These are mostly caste-focused Puranas (the word 'Kula' means 'Family' or 'Tribe' in Sanskrit). They deal with a caste's origin myth, stories and legends. The caste purana is an important source for caste identity and is usually contested by other, rival, castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and might at times be oral.[34]

This subgenre has been little researched. But it is rather well documented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazzeteers.[35]

Other

There are many other narratives that go by the name of Purana. Most are written in vernaculars and are usually concerned with mythical and historical narrations. These texts, such as the Padma Purana of Bengal and Assam (narrating the story of the goddess Manasā), are vast in number and scattered all over the Indian subcontinent.[36]

Jain and Buddhist Puranas

There are many Jain Puranas, dealing with Jain myths, history and legends.[37] [38] Studies and English translations of this particular genre are meagre. The best known of them is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena. The Jain Puranas form a major part of the early Kannada literature.

Swayambhu Purana, a Buddhist Purana, is major source of the history of the Kathmandu valley. Arguably, some Buddhist Mahāyāna Sūtras seem to have some characteristics of Puranas.

Notes

  1. ^ Puranas at Sacred Texts
  2. ^ The Puranas by Swami Sivananda
  3. ^ Nagendra Kumar Singh (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, (1997) ISBN 8174881689, p. 2324
  4. ^ a b Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 359. ISBN 0521433045. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Check |authorlink= value (help); External link in |authorlink= (help)
  5. ^ Matsya Purana 53.65
  6. ^ Rao, Velcheru Narayana (1993). "Purana as Brahminic Ideology". In Doniger Wendy (ed.). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 85–100. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |format= requires |url= (help)
  7. ^ Dimmitt, Cornelia (1978). Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskirt Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 373. ISBN 8170305969. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Sir Monier Monier-Williams. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1899. Page 752, column 3, under the entry Bhagavata.
  9. ^ Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India - Friedhelm Hardy. ISBN 0-19-564916-8
  10. ^ Doniger Wendy, ed. (1993). "The Scrapbook of Undeserved Salvation: The Kedara Khanda of the Skanda Purana". Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 59–83. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |format= requires |url= (help)
  11. ^ The Puranic Encyclopedia
  12. ^ Padma Purana, Uttara-khanda, 236.18-21
  13. ^ Doniger Wendy, ed. (1993). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 59–83. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help)
  14. ^ a b c d Pargiter, F E (1962). Ancient Indian historical tradition. Original publisher Oxford University Press, London. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. pp. 30–54. OCLC 1068416. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |origdate= ignored (|orig-date= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ ; Moghe 1997:249 and the Satapatha Brahmana 11.5.6.8. and 13.4.3.13. SBE Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369
  16. ^ 3.4.1-2, 7.1.2-4, 7.2.1, 7.7.1 Moghe 1997:160,249
  17. ^ Nirukta 1.16, 12.10. See Moghe 1997:161
  18. ^ 6.32 SBE Vol. 15, p. 300
  19. ^ Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 2.4.10, 4.1.2, 4.5.11. Satapatha Brahmana (SBE, Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369). Moghe 1997:160,249
  20. ^ Pargiter 1979
  21. ^ P.L. Bhargava 1971, India in the Vedic Age, Lucknow: Upper India Publishing; Talageri 1993, 2000; Subhash Kak, 1994, The astronomical code of the Rgveda
  22. ^ In Vayu Purana 32, the four Yugas are divided into 4800, 3600, 2400 and 1200 years.
  23. ^ Pargiter 1922:177
  24. ^ Matsya Purana 49.72; Kak 1994 The astronomical code of the Rgveda, p.51
  25. ^ Pliny: Naturalis Historia 6:59; Arrian: Indica 9:9
  26. ^ (see Klaus Klostermaier 1989 and Arvind Sharma 1995)
  27. ^ Elst 1999, with reference to Bernard Sergent
  28. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.273
  29. ^ These have been studied by the Bengali scholar R. C. Hazra. See his Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. I, Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1958. Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. II, Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1979. Studies in Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Delhi, Banarsidass, 1975. More recently they have been studied by Ludo Rocher in The Puranas - A History of Indian Literature. Vol. II, fasc. 3, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986.
  30. ^ Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the dynamics of a cult. Manohar Publishers. p. 304. ISBN 81-7304-195-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help)
  31. ^ Purana at Gurjari
  32. ^ The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa, Brwon Mackenzie. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7
  33. ^ Tamil Temple Myths - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition - David Dean Shulman. ISBN 0-691-06415-6
  34. ^ 'Kulapuranas' - Pulikonda Subbachary in Folklore in Modern India, edited by Jawaharlal Handoo, p. 125-142. ISBN 81-7342-055-6
  35. ^ See for example Castes and Tribes of Southern India Vols I-V, Thurston Edgar. Cosmo Publication, Delhi.
  36. ^ `Verbal Narratives: Performance and Gender of the Padma Purana', by T.N. Sankaranarayana in Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition, Edited by Molly Kaushal, p. 225-234. ISBN 81-246-0182-8
  37. ^ Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1993). "Jaina Puranas: A Puranic Counter Tradition". In Doniger Wendy (ed.). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 207–249. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |format= requires |url= (help)
  38. ^ Cort, John E. (1993). "An Overview of the Jaina Puranas". In Doniger Wendy (ed.). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 185–206. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |format= requires |url= (help)

References

  • Bhargava, P.L. 1971. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing.
  • Dimmitt, Cornelia, and J.A.B. van Buitenen. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978. Pages 4 to 5.
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Handoo, Jawaharlal (editor). Folklore in Modern India. ISBN 81-7342-055-6
  • Hardy, Friedhelm. Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India. ISBN 0-19-564916-8
  • Kaushal, Molly (editor). Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition. ISBN 81-246-0182-8
  • Mackenzie, Brwon. The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7
  • Majumdar, R. C. and Pusalker, A. D. (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 (esp. ch. XIV - XV by A. D. Pusalker)
  • Moghe, S. G. (editor). Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature. 1997, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0075-9
  • Pargiter, F.E. 1922. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London. Oxford University Press.
  • Shulman, David Dean. Tamil Temple Myths - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition. ISBN 0-691-06415-6
  • Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-195-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Thurston Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Vols I-V). Cosmo Publication, Delhi.

Texts

Translations

  • Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam Full text of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, with the original Sanskrit, word-for-word meanings, translation, and commentary.
  • The Vishnu Purana Full text of the H.H. Wilson translation at sacred-texts.com

Synopses

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